PE 1109 
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1831 
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NEW GRAMMAR 



OF THE 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



*^aW 



Si quid novistis rectius istis, 
Candidus imperii ; si non, his utere mecum. 

Horace, 



NEW-YORK : 



vr 



COLLINS AND HANNAY, 230 PEARL STREET. 

W. E. DEAN, PRINTER. 

183L 



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Entered accordmg to the Act of Congress ^ in the ^ear 
One Thousand Eight Hundred and Thirty One, by Col- 
lins and Hannay^ in the Clerk^s Office of the Southern 
District of New-York. 



yC^^ 



PREFACE. 



The following Grammar differs, in many respects^ 
from the Grammars most in use; but it is only in the 
treatment of the Verb that these differences are import- 
ant. The scholar who is taught that a and the are arti- 
cles, and that each, every, &c. are pronouns, and he who 
is taught that they are adjectives, would doubtless use 
them alike in speaking and writing ; but the Verb holds 
such a commanding rank among words, and is susceptible 
of so many modifications, that the inculcation of errors 
in regard to it must lead to errors in composition. That 
portion of the Grammar, therefore, which treats of the 
Verb should be carefully examined before it is approved 
or condemned. 

The Syntax occupies less space in this Grammar than 
in most others ; but that will not be considered a fault, if 
it shall be found to embrace all that is necessary. 



NEW GRAMMAR 



OP THE 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



Grammar is the art of speaking and writing a language 
with propriety. 

It is divided into four parts: Orthography, Etymo- 
logy, Syntax, and Prosody. 

In this work, Etymology and Syntax only will be 
treated of 



PART I. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

It belongs to this part of grammar to shew into how 
many kinds or classes the words of a language may be 
divided ; the nature or properties of the words of each 
class ; and the modifications or changes which they may 
admit. 

There are, in the English language, eight different 
kinds or classes of words, commonly called parts of 
speech { namely, Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, Verbs, 
Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections. 

Many words belong to two or more of these classes ; 
thus, fear may be used as a noun and a verb ; and/wr- 
iher, may be used as an adjective, a verb, and an adverb. 



6 • NOUNS. 

CHAPTER L 

OF NOUNS. 

Noun is from the latin word nomen, signifying iia«ie, 

A noun is the name of any thing that exists, or of 
which we can have an idea: — Boston, marij tree, the 
soul, thought ; the beginning of the world ; he waited for 
the mo2?m^ of the waters. 

Nouns are either proper or common. ' 

Proper nouns are the names appropriated to individuals^ 
or single objects : — George, Vermont, Hudson, Jowler, the 
horse. Eclipse. 

Common nouns are the names of sorts or species, and 
are equally applicable to any individual of the sort or 
species : — animal, river, tree, dog, virtue. 

Proper nouns, when used to denote a class, become 
common nouns : — he is the Washington of the age ; Charles 
the twelfth, that Ccesar of the north. . . 

A common noun, when used as the name of an indivi- 
dual, becomes a proper noun : — Mr. Carpenter is a baker : 
the sloop, Eagle. 

To Nouns belong Person, Gender, Number, and Case. 

PERSON. There are three persons : first, second, and 
third. Nouns are of the first person when used to de- 
signate the person speaking or writing; — I, Paul, write to 
thee, &c. ; they are of the second person when used to 
designate the person addressed ; — child of mortality, 
whence comest thou ; and they are of the third person 
when they designate the person or thing spoken of ; — the 
tree is known by its fruit ; memory is a faculty of the 
mind. Nouns are seldom used in the first or second 
person. 

GENDER. There are three genders ; the masculine, 
the feminine, and the neuter. 

Nouns designating males are masculine : — man, bull, 
gander. Those designating females are feminine : — wo- 
man, cow, goose. Those designating objects or things 
without sex, or of which the sex is unknown, are neuter : 
-afield, river, thought, animal, child. 



NOUNS. 7 

Nouns of the neuter gender are sometimes, by a figure 
of speech, used in the masculine or feminine gender. 
We say of the sun, he is setting; and of a ship, she sails 
well. 

The feminine gender is distinguished from the mascu- 
line in three different modes, viz. 

1. By different words : 



MASCULINE. FEMININE. 


MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 


Bachelor, Maid. 
Boj, Girl. 
Brother, Sister. 
Drake, Duck. 
Friar, Nun. 


Lad, 

Nephew, 

Sloven, 

Uncle, 

Wizard, 


Lass. 

Niece. 

Slut. 

Aunt. 

Witch. 




2. By difference 


! of termination 


: 


Abbot, Abbess. 
Actor, . Actress. 
Executor, Executrix. 
Heir, Heiress. 
Hero, Heroine. 


Jew, 

• Lando^rave,' 
Peer, 

Shepherd,^ 
Widower, 


Jewess. 

Landgravine, 

Peeress. 

Shepherdess. 

Widow, 


3. 


, By prefixing a word indicative of sex : 




A cock- sparrow, 
A man-servant, 
A he-bear, 
A male-child, 


A hen-sparrow. 
A maid-servant. 
A she-bear. 
A female-child. 



Many nouns are of the mascuhne and feminine gender, 
and may be used in either : — person^ scholar, parent.friend, 

NUMBER. Nouns have two numbers, the singular 
and the plural. The singular expresses one object : — 
chair, table. The plural expresses more objects than 
one : — chairs, tables. 

The plural number is generally denoted by adding s to 
the singular : — dove, doves ^ a song, ten songs. 

But when the singular ends in x, ss, s, sh, or ch 
sounded as in church, the plural is formed by adding es : 
— fox, foxes ; lass, lasses ; rebus, rebuses ; sash, sashes ; 



8 



NOUNS. 



torch, torches ; and sometimes when the singular ends in 
0, as hero, heroes. 

In some mstances, when the singular ends in/or /e, 
those letters are changed into ves .-—calf, calves ; self, 
selves ; life, lives. 

When the singular ends in y, with a consonant before 
it, the plural is formed by changing y into ies .-—vanity, 
vanities; body, bodies. But generally, when y has a 
vowel before it, s only is added : — ^valley, valleys ; delay, 
delays. 

Some nouns are used only in the plural : — ashes, riches, 
scissors,, victuals, politics, mathematics. 

Some nouns are used only in the singular .-—wheat, 
hemp, pitch, pride, wine, oil. A portion of these, how- 
ever, admit the plural termination, when different kinds 
are spoken of :— The xoines of France are better than 
those of Germany. 

The following table comprises words which form their 
plural irregularly : 



SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


Man, 


Men. 


Goose, 


Geese. 


Woman, 


Women. 


Mouse, 


Mice. 


Ox, 


Oxen. 


Louse, 


Lice. 


Foot, 


Feet. 


Die, 


Dice. 


Tooth, 


■Teeth. 


Penny, 


Pence. 


The following are frojn ancient languages : 


Axis, 


Axes. 


Stratum, 


Strata. 


Antithesis, 


Antitheses. 


Phenomenon, 


Ph-enomena, 


Basis, 


Bases. 


Arcanum, 


Arcana. 


Crisis, 


Crises. 


Genus, 


Genera. 


Ellipsis, 


Ellipses. 


Radius, 


Radii. 


Automaton, 


Automata. 


Magus, 


Magi. 



When the pieces of coin are spoken of, penny becomes 
pennies in the plural : — The English mint can coin one 
hundred pennies per minute. 

CASE — Signifies the state of the noun, its relation to 
other words, or its position in regard to them. 



PRONOUNS. V 

Nouns have three cases ; the Nominative, the Pos- 
sessive, and the Objective. 

The nominative is the original state of the noun, and 
simply expresses the name of the person or thing v^hich 
acts, exists, or suffers : — John strikes Peter ; the Lord 
liveth ; Thomas was punished. 

The possessive expresses property or fitness, and is 
generally distinguished by the addition of an apostrophe 
and the letter s : — the boy^s hat ; virtue^s reward ; women's 
shoes. But when the plural ends in s,- and sometimes 
when the nominative singular ends in S5, an apostrophe 
only is added : — boys' hals ; for righteousness' sake. 

The objective case does not differ in spelling from the 
nominative. A noun is said to be in this case when it 
follows, or expresses the object of, a verb, or follows a 
preposition: — John strikes Peter ; the sun enlightens the 
earth; fishes hve m water ; birds fly through the mr. 
Here the verbs strikes and enlightens^ and the preposi- 
tions in and through^ are said to govern the following 
nouns ; that is, to place them in the objective case. 

To decline a noun is to recite its various cases. Eng- 
lish nouns are thus declined : 





SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 




Nom. 


Poss. Ohj. 


J^om. Poss. 


Ohj. 


George, 


George's, George. 


Georges, Georges' 


, Georges. 


Stone, 


Stone's, Stone. 


^ Stones, Stones',' 


Stones. 


Lad, 


Lad's, Lad. 


Lads, Lads', 


Lads. 


Lass, 


Lass', Lass. 


Lasses, Lasses', 


Lasses, 



CHAPTER n. 

OF PRONOUNS. 

The word pronoun is formed from two Latin words ; 
pro, for, and nomenj name or noun. 



10 



PRONOUNS, 



A pronoun is a word used instead of, or as a substitute 
for, a noun, when repetition would be inelegant : — The 
Lord is great, and he is also good ; Maria reads well, but 
she cannot write. ". It is also sometimes used as a substi- 
tute, for a sentence : — God said, let there be light, and 
there was light, is not so sublime as ?7 would be if ex- 
pressed in few^er words ; God said, light, be \ and light 
was. 

Pronouns are of two kinds, personal pronoims and ad- 
jective pronouns ; and, like nouns, they have person, 
gender, number, and case. 

Personal pronouns are such as are used as substitutes 
for nouns designating persons, and are 7, thou, he, she, 
it, who. 

7 is of the first person, thou of the second person, and 
he, she, it of the third person ; who is of the first, second, 
and third persons. 

/ Siud thou are used in the masculine and feminine gen- 
der ; he is of the masculine gender ; she is of the feminine 
gender ; it is of the neuter gender ; who is of all genders. 

The foregoing pronouns are varied to denote number 
and case, and are thus declined : 





SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 




Mm. 


Poss. Obj. 


JVom. Foss, 


Obj. 


I, 


Mine, Me. 


We, Ours, 


Us. 


Thou, 


Thine, Thee. 


Ye or you. Yours, 


You. 


He, 


His, Him. 


They, ' Theirs, 


Them. 


She, 


Hers, Her. 


They, Theirs, 


Them'. 


It, 


Its, It. 


They, Theirs, 


Them. 


Who, 


Whose, Whom. 


Who, Whose, 


Whom. 



Instead of ^/lo?/, you is invariably used in the second 
person singular, except in solemn style ; we do not say, 
thou didst it, but you did it. Ye is not used except in 
solemn style. 

Adjective pronouns are words partaking of the nature 
of pronouns and adjectives ; and all of them are some- 
times used as adjectives. They are this, that, what, 
which, both, other, none, one, and perhaps some others. 



PRONOUNS. 11 

The foregoing words are pronouns when used as sub- 
stitutes for nouns, as in the following phrases :■ — Of wealth 
and poverty, it may be said, that bolh are temptations; 
that.tends to excite pride, this discontent. This is what 
I wanted. This is the tree which produces no fruit. Ye 
shall lie down, and none shall make you afraid. I have 
called my might} ones. 

The same words are adjectives when used to qualify or 
define nouns expressed or understood: — What mdin is 
thai (man) ? What tree did you speak of? I will point 
out which tree I spoke of; that tree yonder. This 
(thought) is a sublime thought. Who is of both numbers. 

As many words are used, sometimes as pronouns and 
sometimes as adjectives, it may often be difficult for the 
learner to decide to which class they belong. As a 
guide, he must keep in mind the definition, that " a pro- 
noun is a word used as a substitute for a noun." Ac- 
cording to this definition, /ormer and latter, in the follow- 
lowing sentence, are pronouns. " It was happy for 
Rome that Fabius continued in the command with Minu- 
cius ; the former^s. phlegm was a check upon the latter^ s 
vivacity." . 

Who, which and that are called Relative Pronouns when 
they relate to a word or phrase going before, which is 
thence called the Antecedent: — He, who runs, may read ; 
the light which shineth in darkness ; the man is wise that 
avoids contention. What sometimes includes both the 
antecedent and the relative, and is, at the same time, the 
object of one verb and the nominative of another : — One 
man admires rohat displeases another. It is synonymous 
with that which, or the thing zohich. That, when used as 
a relative, is sometimes plural :- — let states that aim at 
greatness, &c. 

Which and that were formerly much used as personal 
pronouns; who is now generally used instead of both of 
them. 

Ever and soever are sometimes added to who, which, 
and what, making whoever, whosoever, &c. Each of 
these compound pronouns may be used as the nominative 
to two verbs :— whoever sins, shall be punished ; whatever 



12 PRONOUNS. 

is done, should be done quickly ; but they are seldom used 
in modern style. 

The noun self, is sometimes added to the defining ad- 
jectives my, thy; his, her, it-s, our, your, their, and .one^ 
making. my self, ourselves, &c. His, its, and their have, 
how^ever, been changed by use ifito Azm, it, and them, 
making himself, itself, and themselves ; and these words, 
when so formed, are used in the nominative as well as 
the objective case. This is evidently a departure from 
grammatical propriety, but has been sanctioned by long 
and invariable usage. All these compound words are 
used as reciprocal pronouns, and to express emphasis :-^I 
injured myself ; they injured themselves ; he Aims e//' did 
it ; they came themselves. 

It is a word of great universality, and may be used in 
apposition with any of the pronouns, singular or plural, 
and with almost every noun in the language :—it is I ; it 
was you ; it was she ; it was they ; who was it ? It is 
the Lord who hath done this ; it is cold to-day. 

It sometimes stands as the representative of a sentence, 
or part of a sentence : — It is disagreeable to hear prof ane 
language ; New-York, it is well known, is a large city ; 
here it refers io New -York is a large city ; and the na- 
tural order of the words would be. New- York is a large 
city, tris well known. 

Some grammarians class the following words among 
pronouns : — each, every, either, many, few, all, some, se- 
veral, such, same, any, &c. All of these are,, however, 
generally used as adjectives, and they are, perhaps, never 
used except to define nouns expressed or understood. ^ 

Such of the adjective pronouns as are varied to express 
number and case, are thus declined : 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

JVom. Poss, Obj. JVom. Poss. Obj\ 

Which, Whose, Which. Which, Whose, Which. 

Whichever, Whosever, Whichever. Whichever, Whosever, Whichever. 
Other, Other's, Other. Others, Others', Others. 

One, One's, One. Ones, Ones', Ones. 



ADJECTIVES* 13 



CHAPTER IIL 

OF ADJECTIVES. 

Adjective is from the two Latin words ad, to, and 
jaceoy to place, ^vhich, united, signify added to, or placed 
near to. 

An adjective is a word added to, or placed near to, a 
noun, and qualifies or defines it. 

Adjectives are of two kinds ; qualifying adjectives, and 
defining adjectives. 

Qualifying adjectives are such words as express a qua- 
lity of the object or thing of w^hich the noun is the name ; 
— a good man ; a heautifid rose ; a white horse. Here 
the adjectives good, beautiful, and white express qualities 
of the man, rose, and horse ; and they are qualities which 
belong to the object named. 

Defining adjectives are such words as define, specify 
limit, or extend the meaning of the nouns to which they 
belong, or describe circumstances relating to them : — that 
man ; the men ; one man ; ten men ; the tenth man ; few 
men ; many men ; all men ; zvhich man ; the north and 
south poles ; my hat ; your hat ; other hats ; every hat ; 
no hat ; each hat ; a hat ; an apple. 

The two kinds of adjectives are not divided from each 
other by a line plainly and distinctly marked ; and it is 
therefore fortunate that a mistake, by the learner, in this 
respect, would lead to no other error. 

The spelling of adjectives is not varied to express num- 
ber, with the exception of this and that, which are in the 
plural these and those. 

In order to express diflferent degrees of the same qua- 
lity, the spelling of adjectives is sometimes varied. This 
is called the Comparison of adjectives. 

Adjectives have a positive state, and a comparative and 
a superlative degree. 

2 



14 



ADJECTIVES. 



The positive state, is the original state or form of the 
word : — great, short. 

The comparative degree increases or lessens the posi- 
tive in signification : — greater, shorter. 

The superlative degree increases or lessens the positive 
to the highest or low^est degree ; — greatest, shortest. 

The comparative is formed by adding r or er to the po- 
sitive ; the superlative by adding st or est. 

But most adjectives, of more than one syllable, are 
compared by placing more or less before the positive to 
form the comparative degree, and most and least before 
the positive to form the superlative degree. 

The follov^ing table represents several adjectives com- 
pared : 



Positive. 



Comparative. 



Superlative. 



White, 


Whiter, 


Whitest. 


Humble, 


Humbler, 


Humblest. 


Great, 


Greater, 


Greatest. 


Small, 


Smaller, 


Smallest. 


Learned, 


More learned, 


Most learned. 


Beautiful, 


Less beautiful, 


Least beautiful 



The superlative is sometimes formed by placing most at 
the end : — -foremost, uppermost, undermost. 

The following adjectives are compared irregularly : 



Positive. 

Good, 

Bad, 

Little, 

Many, 

Much, 



Comparative. 


Superlati 


Better, 


Best. 


Worse, 


Worst. 


Less, 


Least. 


More, 


Most. 


More, 


Most. 



The termination ish, when added to adjectives, ex- 
presses quality in a diminished degree : — green, greenish. 
When added to nouns, it converts them into adjectives : — 
wasp, waspish; child, childish. 



VERBS. 



15 



Many adjectives do not admit of comparison : — all, 
round, square, any, ten, twentieth, 

A noun placed before another noun assumes the nature 
of an adjective : — sea water, corn field, fish oil. They 
are frequently united by a hyphen : — man-servant, eye- 
servant, pocket-handkerchief. 

An, vv^hich loses the n v^hen it is followed by a word 
beginning with a vowel or silent h, and the, have been, in 
some grammars, classed by themselves and called articles. 
They evidently belong to the same class of words as one 
and this, and are defining adjectives. Directions have 
been given when to use, and when to omit them ; but the 
use of these, as well as of other words, is best learned by 
carefully observing the practice of correct speakers and 
writers. 



CHAPTER IV. 



OF VERBS. 

Verb is from the Latin x?6r6wm, the leading signification 
of which is word, but it has also the same signification as 
verb in English. The verb is the most important of all 
the parts of speech. 

A verb is a word which expresses action, being, or 
suffering ; and under the term, action, is included all the 
operations of the mind and of nature, and the emotions of 
the heart. 

A verb may be known by making sense with either of 
the personal pronouns before it : — I run, he thinks, thou 
lovest, she is, it ram5, they live, who is afflicted? 

Verbs are of two kinds, transitive and intransitive. 
The word transitive is derived from the Latin transeo, to 
pass over ; it is applicable to whatever passes over ; in- 
transitive is applicable to whatever does not pass over. 

A transitive verb expresses an action performed, or an 



16 VERBS. 

influence exerted, by an agent, which action or influence 
passes to, rests upon, or affects an object : — John strikes 
Peter. Here John is the agent or actor, strikes expresses 
the action, and Peter is the object upon which the action 
rests. The sun enUgiitens the earth ; love softens the 
heart ; the tutor instructs the pupils. In these expres- 
sions, enlightens, softens, and instructs are transitive 
verbs, preceded by the names of the agents in the nomi- 
native case, and followed by the names of the objects in 
the objective case. 

An intransitive verb expresses simply existence ; — I 
am, he lives ; or it expresses the action of an agent, which 
does not pass over to, nor affect, an object : — I run, John 
plays, trees grozo, his head aches. 

Many verbs may be used as transitive, and also as in- 
transitive verbs: — Maria sung charmingly ; Maria sung an 
Itahan song last evening. In the first sentence sung has 
no object ; in the last, it has an object, which is song. 

A combination of the verb to be with the past participle 
of a transitive verb forms what has been called a passive 
verb : — to be loved, to be instructed, she is loved, they are 
instructed. Here the name of the object is the nomina- 
tive of the verb, and the name of the agent, if any is 
spoken of, follows, and is pointed out by a preposition : — 
she is loved by her companions ; he is instructed by the 
tutor. This is rather n.form than a class of verbs. 

Many nouns may be used as verbs : — I hope to succeed ; 
he has no hope of success. 

There is a small class of verbs of one syllable, called Auxi- 
liaries, and they are so called because they help to conjugate 
the principal verbs. They are can, may^ must, shall^ could, 
woidd^ should^ and might. As they are much used, some ob- 
servations upon their meaning and use may be of service to the 
scholar. 

Can expresses ability ; — he com write. 

Maij expresses possibiUty or liberty : — the report inay be true ; 
you may go. 

Must expresses necessity or obligation ; — all men must die ; 
you mu^t go. 



VERBS. 17 

Shall expresses obligation or necessity. It is derived from a 
German word, the meaning of which is similar to that of ought ; 
but it does not express all the meanings of its German parent. 
It is used only in helping to form future tenses ; and its inaport 
is different when used in the first, and when used in the second 
and third persons. In the fii'st person, it denotes what will 
necessarily happen, or simply foretells : — we shall receive a just 
reward for deeds done in the body ; I shall see you to-morrow. 
In the second and third persons, it promises, commands, or 
threatens : — thou shalt inherit the land ; ye shall do justice and 
love mercy ; he shall be punished. 

Could expresses ability ; might, permission or possibility ; 
should, obligation or necessity ; loould^ desire, willingness, and 
sometimes determination. They are used in conditional and 
dependent phrases :— I would go if I could ; I could walk if you 
would assist me ; you should never be angry without just cause ; 
in such a case might I not tell him my mind frankly ? They 
are used in phrases when a point of time is not specified : — 
youth should venerate age ; people often suffer for the want of 
what they might easily obtain ; men loould be much happier if 
they were always virtuous. They are used to express ideas 
which are future in regard to a specified or implied point of 
time, whether past, present, or future. He told me last^^eek 
that he would, &c. go yesterday, to-day, to-morrow ; your 
friend being now present you could^ might, should tell him your 
mind frankly ; you have done all you can, as circumstances 
are, but you could^ &c. do more after obtaining legal authority. 
They are used in expressions implying respect, hesitation, and 
doubt : I ioouldxQQ,ommeM ; — I should think this would be the 
wiser course ; I could wish you would do it ; might I be per- 
mitted to advise. If used when no condition is expressed, one 
is generally implied, or some Hmitation of the expression, or a 
dependence of the idea expressed upon some other idea, seems 
to be present in the mind of the speaker : — I would recommend 
what I have said to your attention ; here, if I might be per- 
mitted, if you would excuse my presumption, or some such 
clause, seems to be necessary to complete the sentence ; " the 
politics of courts are so mean, that private people would be 
ashamed to act in the same way f that is, if in similar or ana- 
logous circumstances : I shoidd be happy to see you ; that is, if 
you would visit me. Could, would, and should, are, however 
sometimes used when no condition is implied : — he would go| 
and we couU not prevent it ; rulers should be obeyed.* 

* See Note A. 
2* 



18 VERBS. 

This is but an imperfect definition of the auxiliaries. Much 
of the elegance, precision, and force of composition, depends 
upon the right use of them ; and the best, if not the only, me- 
thod of acquiring a just conception of their import is, to observe 
attentively in what m.anner they are used b}^ authors distin- 
guished for the correctness of their style, and their adherence 
to the true English idiom. 

In addition to the foregoing, several principal verbs are used 
as auxiliaries : they are have^ do^ he^ and will 

Have needs no explanation. 

Do and did are used to render the expression more positive 
and emphatic, and in negative and interrogative phrases : — I 
do love you ; he does not love you ; here I am, for thou didst 
call me ; c^o you intend to go to Boston.?. -^ It does not, like 
other auxiliaries, modify the meaning of the verb. 

Be is used in conjugating verbs in the passive form ; — to he 
loved; she is loved; she was respected. It is also used in form- 
ing tenses ending with the indefinite participle : — he is writing ; 
he has been writing. 

Will expresses determination, promises and foretels, and is 
used only in helping to form future tenses. Like shall, it has 
a different import when used in the first, and when used in the 
second and third persons. In the first person, it expresses de- 
termination or it promises : — we loill have our revenge ; I tuill 
pay you all. In the second and third persons, it foretells : — you 
will repent ; they loill have a pleasant walk. Shall and loill 
are often improperly used one for the other ; — ^' I willdixoww and 
nobody shall help me," said a man who fell into the Potomac. 

To verbs belong Number, Person, Participle, Mode, 
Tense, and Conjugation. 

Verbs have two numbers, singular and phiral ; and 
three persons, first, second and third, corresponding 
with the numbers and persons of pronouns and nouns. 
The termination st denotes the second person singular, 
and s the third person singular. 

PERSON. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1 I love. We love. 

2 Thou lovest, " You love. 

3 He loves, They love. 
3 A man writes, Men write. 



VERBS. 19 

Participle. The participle is a form of the verb, and 
it is so called because it partakes (participates) of the pro- 
perties of the verb and the adjective. There are three 
kinds ; the indefinite, by some called the present parti- 
ciple, which always ends m ing: — loving, writing, keeping ; 
the past, which usually ends in ed, but sometimes dif- 
ferently : — loved, written, kept ; and the compound past : 
— having loved, having written, having kept. 

The indefinite and past participles are often used as adjec- 
tives. In the following expressions, the words in Italic are 
participles : — the young man, admiring Washington, took him 
for his pattern ; the painting was admired by all who saw it. 
In the following expressions, the same words are adjectives : — 
he was followed by an admiring multitude ; West's paintings 
are admired productions. 

It is sometimes difficult to determine whether the past parti- 
ciple is used as a participle or as an adjective. It must be 
considered a participle when it expresses action ; and an adjec- 
tive when it does not : — she died la?nented by all who knew her • 
words fitly spoken are like apples of gold in pictures of silver ; 
read books written by the best authors, and you will acquire an 
elegant and correct style. In these expressions, the words in 
Italic are participles. 

Mode. Mode is a particular form of the verb, shew- 
ing the manner in which action, being, or suffering is re- 
presented. A modification of the meaning of a phrase, 
not produced by an alteration of the form of the verb, but 
by the use of words belonging to other parts of speech, 
does not constitute a mode. And in speaking of the 
form of a verb, not only the original word, but the auxi- 
liaries added, are taken into view ; shall-have-loved con- 
stitutes but one verb, and is a modification of the verb to 
love. 

There are five modes, the Infinitive, the Indicative, the 
Potential, the Conditional,* and the Imperative.! 

To express action or being in the abstract, or in an in- 
definite sense, the infinitive is used : — to go, to live. This 
is the original, unmodified form of the verb. 

To declare aflSrmatively, to deny and to question, the 

* Sse Note B. t See Note C. 



20 VERBS. 

indicative is used : — he goes ; they will not determint ; 
who has done this ? 

To express possibiHty, liberty, pov^^er, or obligation, 
the potential is used. The auxiliaries belonging to this 
mode, and called the signs of it, are may^ can, and must : 
it fnay rain ; he may go ; I can ride ; he must ride ; he 
may have ridden. 

To express an idea conditionally, or to indicate that 
there is a dependence of the idea expressed upon another 
idea expressed or understood, the conditional is used. 
The auxiliaries belonging to this mode are could, mighty 
should, and would : — I would go if I could; he might ride 
if he pleased ; I should be glad to see you, if you should 
ever visit New-York. 

To command, entreat, or exhort, the imperative is 
used : — depart, ye cursed ; forgive our trespasses ; repent, 
for the kingdom of Heaven is at hand. 

Tense. Tense is a word signifying time, which has 
three principal divisions,— present, past, and future. A 
verb has, therefore, three principal tenses — present, past^ 
and future : 

Present. I praise, I write. 

Past, I praised, I wrote. 

Future, I shall or will praise, I shall or will write. 

But in addition to these principal tenses, there are 
others, which are used when we wish to refer an action 
or intention to some particular portion or subdivision of 
past or future time, or to express an idea without refe- 
rence to time. 

The infinitive mode has two tenses, the Indefinite and 
the Past. 

The indefinite tense is used when we wish to express a 
general idea which has no reference to a particular time, 
or may be referred to time present, past, or future : — to be 
good is to be happy ; to praise God was the delight of our 
first parents in paradise ; to praise God is the delight of 
pious men ; to praise God will be for ever the delight of 
just men made perfect. When it follows another verb, it 
invariably points to a time subsequent to the time denoted 



VERBS. 21 

by that verb : — I intend to go ; I intended to go ; he will 
engage to go. 

The past tense is used when we wish to describe or re- 
late what is passed. It is formed by the help of the auxi- 
liary to have and the past participle of the principal verb : 
— Alfred appears to have governed England with justice 
as well as rigor. 

The indicative mode, which is the one most used, has 
six tenses, — the present, the present past, the past, the 
prior past, the future, and the future past. 

The present tense represents an action or event as pass- 
ing or happening at the precise time in which it is spoken 
of: — I love, he zvalks, the tree is falling. 

But necessity, convenience, or caprice, has led mankind to 
make frequent use of the form of the present tense to express 
ideas not restricted to present time, and to represent past ac- 
tions as actually passing at the moment of speaking. Thus it 
is used to express general truths, axioms, and qualities which 
alwaj^s exist :— goodness deserves esteem ; the whole is greater' 
than a part ; virtue is amiable at all times. It is used to ex- 
press a future action already determined on : — I go to Boston 
to-morrow. It is used to express actions of frequent occur- 
rence : — he rides often ; she loalks out every morning. It is 
used when speaking of authors who are dead, but whose 
works are extant : — Job speaks feelingly of his afflictions. It is 
used when the time of the action spoken of has relation to a 
future time pointed out by other words :— when he arrives, he 
will hear the news. It is used in historical and poetical narra- 
tions to exhibit past events or transactions to the mind of the 
reader as though actually present : — the battle rages on the 
hill ; soldier meets soldier in direful conflict ; the general leads 
the reserve to the assistance of the main body ; the carnage is 
redoubled : the enemy jfee ; and the assailants remain masters 
of the position. 

The present past is formed by the use of i\\Q present 
tense of the auxihary have, and the j>as^ participle of the 
principal verb ; and here it may be proper to observe, 
that the prinative meaning of auxiliaries, in regard both 
to the action they describe and the time they denote, is 
not lost when connected w^ith a principal verb, and that 
a compound tense expresses a compound idea. This 



22 " VERBS. 

tense represents an action as having passed in a period of 
time v^hich has some expressed, obvious, or latent con- 
nection w^ith, or reference to, the present time : — I have 
seen him to-day ; here the action is finished, but the time 
mentioned includes the present time. I have accomplished 
my task ; here a reference to the present time is not ob- 
vious, but that there is, or may be, such a reference, is 
shewn by the necessity of using a different tense, w^hen 
all such reference is excluded — I accomplished my task 
yesterday. The clergy have always claimed great 
powers ; here this tense is used because the order of the 
clergy yet exists ; we cannot say, the Druids have 
claimed great powers, because the Druids no longer exist. 
*^ The song has ceased, 
And young Rinaldo leads the lady forth 
To dance a graceful measure on the turf." 
Here the idea conveyed is, that the song has just ceased. 
The past tense is used to represent past actions or 
events, without reference to any division of past time : — 
he wrote; they were rvriting ; Alexander conquered the 
Persians; they zvere instructed. 

The point of time from which the past is to be reckoned is 
not always the moment when a person is speaking, but is often 
the time, sometimes present and sometimes future, of some ac- 
tion or event spoken of : — if it were raining^ we should be 
obliged to seek shelter ; if he had wealth, he would be gene- 
rous ; suppose he ivas here, what would you say to him ? if he 
left town to-morrow, he might arrive at Boston in season ; 
America, if she fell, would fall like the strong man ; if George 
had not died until December next, he would have been twenty 
years old. In the last example, the time denoted by the verb 
had died was previous to the time of speaking ; the time de- 
noted by would have been must be subsequent to the time of 
speaking, but past in relation to December. *' If any person 
shall assist a prisoner, hereafter committed for any crime, to 
escape before conviction, he shall suffer the same punishment 
which the prisoner loould have suffered if he had been convicted of 
the crime for which he stood committed." Here all the times 
denoted by the verbs in Italics are future in relation to the date 
of the law, but past in relation to the time denoted by shall 
suffer ; had been convicted refers to a time which is past in rela- 
tion to would have suffered ; stood refers to past time, reckoning 



V£RBS. 33 

from the time denoted by shall suffer^ and is not, except by other 
words, restricted to any portion of past time. 

The past tense may be used after the verb to loish^ when 
present time is referred to : — I wish my friend had a lucrative 
profession. Here toish^ though in the present tense, points to 
the futui'e ; and in order to express present time, the mind is re- 
called to the past. By the same rule, when past time is refer- 
red to, the prior past tense is used : I wish I had written yester- 
day. These expressions have some analogy to the structure of 
the present past, the future past, and other tenses. The union 
of different tenses, like the mixture of different ingredients, pro- 
duces a compound partaking of the properties of both, but of 
the properties of neither in their full extent. 

The prio7' past is formed by the use of the;?^^^ of the 
verb to have, and the past participle of the principal verb. 
It is used when speaking of an action which took place 
prior to {before) another action ^\so past ^ and it is some- 
times called the pluperfect, more than perfect, or more 
than past : I had accomplished my task w^hen he arrived ; 
he gave directions yesterday, but I had slre^dy performed 
the duty. 

The future is used when speaking of an action yet to be 
performed, or of an event yet to happen. It is formed 
by the use of one of the auxiliaries shall or will, and the 
infinitive of the principal verb : — he will write to you to- 
morrow ; you shall have your reward. 

The Jiiture past is formed by the use of the auxiliaries 
shall or will, the infinitive of have, and the past participle 
of the principal verb. It refers to a time which is future 
in regard to the present time, but past in regard to some 
other time mentioned : — he will have accomplished his task 
by noon to-morrow ; they will have departed before you 
arrive at their house. 

The potential mode has two tenses, the present and 
the past. 

The present tense is formed by the use of the auxiUaries 
may, can, and must, and the infinitive of the principal 
verb : — he may — can — must go. Like the present tense 
of the indicative mode, it has sometimes a future signifi- 
cation : — he may — can — must go to-morrow. It has be- 
fore been remarked that the indefinite of the infinitive, 
when it follows a verb, points to the future. 



24 VERBS* 

The past tense is formed by the use of the same auxi- 
Haries, the infinitive of have, and the past participle of the 
principal verb : — 1 may have written. It may be used with 
reference to any portion of past time. 

The conditional mode has two tenses, the indefinite 
and the past. 

The indefinite tense is formed by the help of the auxi- 
liaries couldj might, should and xooidd, and the infinitive 
of the principal verb : — in that event, he could — might--^ 
should — would go. 

These auxiliaries do not seem to contain or import, of them- 
selves, any idea of time, but are made to point, or refer, to time 
past, present, or future, by the use of other words, or by the 
tenor and drift of the discourse. Might and should cannot, how- 
ever, be used, with the infinitive alone, to refer to past time, ex- 
cept when a time is mentioned or is implied, which is previous 
to the time to which these words refer. We cannot say, 
George mighl — should write yesterday ; but we may say, the 
master told George, last week, that he might — should ivrite 
yesterday. 

Were is sometimes used for ivould he: ^^ Returning were as 
tedious as go o'er." This is a German idiom, and it were bet- 
ter to avoid it. 

The past tense is formed by the use of the same auxi- 
liaries, the infinitive of have, and the past participle of the 
principal verb : — he could, might, should, would have 
rvritten. It may be used with reference to any portion of 
past time. 

Had is sometimes used for loould have : — " Many acts which 
had been blamable in a peaceable government were employed 
to detect conspiracies." This also is a German idiom, and is not 
entitled to favor. 

The imperative mode has but one tense, the present ; 
but one person, the second ; and the form of the verb is 
the same in both numbers: — John, study your lesson; 
boys, study your lesson. 

Some grammarians call this a future tense, for the reason 
that a command, entreaty, or exhortation has always reference 
to an action not yet performed* 



/ 

VERBS. 2$ 

The past participle, when used in the formation of tenses, 
^represents an action as completed, finished : — he has written ; 
he has studied ; they will have learnt their lesson by to-morrow 
noon. The indefinite participle represents continuance of ac- 
tion ; and it is used when we wish to represent an action as 
continuing and unfinished, at a definite, specified time :— he is, 
at this moment, luriiing the letter ; the farmer loas moioing 
when I spoke to him ; he will be preparing for a visit at the time 
you arrive. And it is used, in connection with the past partici- 
ple, when we wish to represent an action, as having had con- 
tinuance, and ceased, at or before a specified time : — The boy 
has been readiiig ixom ten o'clock to the present time ; the troops 
had been marching several hours, when the signal for battle was 
given ; we shall huve been making preparations a week before 
our friends arrive. In the latter class of examples ihe continu- 
ance of the action is denoted by the indefinite participle ; its 
completion, by the past. 

Conjugation. The conjugation of a verb is the re- 
gular arrangement of its several numbers, persons, modes, 
and tenses, shewing all the modifications of which it is 
susceptible. 

Some verbs are regular, some irregular, and some de- 
fective, in their conjugations. 

Regular verbs are those wdiich have ed at the end of 
the past tense and past participle. 

Irregular verbs are all those which do not have ed at 
the end of the past tense and past participle. 

Defective verbs are those which are not used in all the 
modes and tenses : such as ought, quoth, wot, wis, and 
the auxiliaries. 

There are two forms of conjugation, the active and the 
passive. Thus, to love is, in the active form, I love, I 
loved, I shall love, &c. ; in the passive form, I am loved, 
I was loved, I shall be loved, &c. 



26 VERBS. 

Conjugation of Verbs in the Active form* 

To LOVE, (a regular verb,) 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Indefinite Tense^ To love. 

Past Tense^ To have loved* 

PARTICIPLES. 

Indefinite^ Loving. 

Past^ Loved. 

Compound past. Having loved. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 love, we love. 

2. thou lovest, (or you love,)"^ you love, (or ye love.)* 

3. he, she, or it loves, (or loveth,)"^ they love. 

Present past Tense. 

1. I have loved, we have loved. 

2. thou hast loved, you have loved. 

3. he has loved, they have loved. 

Past Tense. 

1. I loved, we loved. 

2. thou lovedst, you loved. 
3» he loved, they loved. 

Prior past Tense. 

1. I had loved, we had loved* 

2. thou hadst loved, you had loved. 

3. he had loved, they had loved. 

* It must be remembered that you is generally used instead of fhojl 
for the second person singular; as, you love; that, in solemn style, the 
third person singular ends in eth, as, he lovelh ; and that, in that style, ye 
is used instead Qiyou in the second person plural ; as, ye love. 



VERBS. 27 



Future Tense, 



1. I shall or will love, we shall or will love. 

2. thou shall or wilt love, you shall or will love. 

3. he shall or will love, they shall or will love. 

Future past Tense. 

1. I shall have loved, we shall have loved. 

2. thou shalt or wilt have you shall or will have loved, 

loved, 

3. he shall or will have loved, they shall or will have loved. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense. 

1. I may* love, we may love. 

2. thou may est love, you may love. 

3. he may love, they may love. 

Past Tense. 

1 . I may* have loved, we may have loved. 

2. thou mayest have loved, you may have loved. 

3. he may have loved, they may have loved. 

CONDITIONAL MODE. 

Indefinite Tense. 

1. I couldf love, we could love. 

2. thou couldst love, you could love. 

3. he could love, they could love. 

Past Tense, 

1. I could| have loved, we could have loved. 

2. thou couldst have loved, you could have loved. 

3. he could have loved, they could have loved. 

♦ Can and must are also used in both tenses of the potential mode. 

t Might, should, and w§tdd are also used in both tenses of the condition- 
al mode. In the several tables or paradigms, the several auxiliaries will 
be separately used. 



28 VERFS, 

IMPERATIVE MODK 

Present Tense. 
2, Love, or love thou, love, or love you. 

In the same manner are conjugated all regular verbs ; and 
there is no difference between the conjugation of regular and 
of irregular verbs, except in the mode of forming the past tense 
stnd past participle. 



To HAVE, (an irregular verb.) 
INFINITIVE MODE. 





Indefinite Tense,, 
Past Tense^ 


To have. 
To have had. 

PARTICIPLES. 




Indefinite^ 
Past, 
Compound past^ 


Having. 
Had. 
Having had* 




INDICATIVE MODEJ 






Present Tense. 




Singular. 


Plural 


1. 

2. 
3. 


I have, 

thou hast, 

he, she, or it has 


we have, 
ye or you have. 
5, they have. 

Present past Tense. 


2. 
3. 


I have had, 
thou hast had, 
he has had, 


we have had. 
you have had. 
they have hadv 

Past Tense. 


1. 
2. 
3. 


I had, 
thou hadst, 
he had, 


we had. 
you had. 
they had* 



VERBS. 29 

Prior past Tense. 

1. I had had, we had had. 

2. thou hadst had, you had had. 

3. he had had, they had had. 

Future Tense. 

1. I shall or will have, we shall or wdll have. 

2. thou shalt or wilt have, you shall or will have. 

3. he shall or will have, they shall or will have. 

Future past Tense. 

1. I shall have had, we shall have had. 

2. thou shalt or wilt have you shall or will have had. 

had, 

3. he shall or will have they shall or will have had. 

had, 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense. 

1. I can have, we can have. 

2. thou canst have, you can have. 

3. he can have, they can have. 

Past Tense. 

1. I can have had, we can have had. 

2. thou canst ha^^e had, you can have had. 

3. he can have had, they can have had. 

CONDITIONAL MODE. 

Indefinite Tense. 

1. I might have, we might have: 

2. thou mightest have, you might have. 
8. he might have, they might have. 

Past Tense. 

1. I might have had, we might have had. 

2. thou mightest have you might have had. 

had, 

3. he might have had, they might have had, 

3^ 



30 VERBS. 

IMPERATIVE MODE 

Present Tense} 
. Have, or have thou, Have, or have yon. 



To BE. 



The verb to he is exceedingly irregular ; and this irregulari- 
ty is occasioned by the different parts of it having been received 
from different la^nguages, all once spoken by our ancestors in 
England, or by their ancestors on the continent of Europe. Be 
is from one source, am from another, luas from another, and 
toere from another. These are different words, all having the 
same meaning, and all, possibly, derived from the same root. 
This is not the only instance in which an English verb is form- 
ed by the union of two or more. From the two verbs, to go and 
to wend^ is formed the verb to go^ as it is now used ; loent being 
the past of to loend. Wend is sometimes, however, used in the 
present tense as well as go ; and to be has more than one form 
in the present and past tenses. 

In the present tense, be^ though once used where am, &c. now 
is, has ceased to be used unless preceded bj a conjunction ; in 
the first and second persons singular of the past tense, were has 
also ceased to be used unless preceded by a conjunction ; if is 
therefore prefixed. Those parts of the verb printed in italic 
characters have ceased to be used, or are used only by the vul- 
gar. See note C. 

INFINITIVE. MODE. 

Indefinite Tense, To be. 

Past Tense, To have been. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Indefinite, Being. 

Past, Been. 

Compound past, Having been. 



VERBS. 



INDICATIVE MODE. 



31 



Present Tense — (first form.) 

1. If I be, if we be. 

2. if thou (beest, or) be, if you be. 

3. if he be, ifthejbe. 

Present Tense — (second form.) 

1. I am, we are. 

2. thou art, you are. 

3. he is, thej are. 

Present past Tense. 

1. I have been, we have been. 

2. thou hast been, you have been. 

3. he has been, they have been. 

Past Tense — (first form.) 

1. I was, (we 2vas.) 

2. thou wast, (you was.) 

3. he was, [they was.) 

Past Tense — (second form.) 

1. If I were, we were. 

2. thou wert, you were. 

3. if he were, they were. 

Prior past Tense. 

1. 1 had been, we had been. 

2. thou hadst been, you had been. 

3. he had been, they had been. 

Future Tense. 

1. I shall or will be, we shall or will be. 

2. thou shall or wilt be, you shall or will be. 

3. he shall or will be, they shall or will be. 

Future past Tense. 

1. I shall have been, we shall have been. 

2. thou shalt or wilt have you shall or will have been. 

been, 

3. he shall or ^vill have they shall or \vill have been^ 

been, 



32 VERBS. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense. 

1. I must be, we must be. 

2. thou must be, you must be. 

3. he must be, they must be. 

Past Tense. 

1. I must have been, we must have been. 

2. thou must have been, you must have been. 

3. he must have been, they must have been. 

CONDITIONAL MODE. 

Indefinite Tense. 

1. I should be, we should be. 

2. thou shouldst be, you should be. 

3. he should be, they should be. 

Past Tense. 

1. I should have been, we should have been, 

2. thou shouldst have you should have been. 

been, 

3. he should have been, they should have been. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 
Be, or be thou. Be, or be you. 



The following table exhibits the several modes and 
tenses formed by the use of the indefinite participle. All 
verbs, except the verb to be, may be so conjugated. 

To WRITE. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Indefinite Tense, To be writing. 

Past Tensej To have been writing. 



VERBS. 



PARTICIPLES. 



33 



Lidefinitej 

Past, ^ ^ 

Compound past ^ Having been writing. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense,^ 

1. I am writing, we are writing. 

2. thou art writing, you are writing. 

3. he is writing, they are writing. 

Present past Tense. 

1. I have been writing, we have been writing. 

2. thou hast been writing, you have been writing. 

3. he has been writing, they have been writing. 

Past Tense.^ 

^ 1. I was writing, we were writing. 

2. thou wast writing, you were writing. 

3. he was writing, they were writing. 

Prior past Tense. 

1. I had been writing, we had been ^\Titing. 

2. thou hadst been writing, yoM had been writing. 

3. he had been writing, they had been writing. 

Future Tense. 

1. I shall or ^vill be writing, we shall or will be writing. 

2. thou shalt or wilt be writing, you shall or will be writing. 

3. he shall or will be writing, they shall or will be writing. 

Future past Tense, 

1. I shall have been writing, we shall have been writing. 

2. thou shalt or wilt have you shall or will have been 

been writing, writing. 

3. he shall or will have been they shall or will have been 

writing, writing, 

* Be and wi,rt may be under the present and past tenses, in the same 
manner as they are used in the conjugation oito be in page 31, 



34 



VERBS. 



POTENTIAL MODE. 



Present Tense. 

1. I may be writing, we may be writing. 

2. thou mayest be writing, you may be writing. 

3. he may be writing, they may be waiting. 

Past Tense. 

1. I may have been writing, we may have been writing. 

2. thou mayest have been you may have been writing- 

writing, 

3. he may have been writing, they may have been writing. 

CONDITIONAL MODE. 

Indefinite Tense. 

1 . I would be writing, we would be writing. 

2. thou wouldst be writing, you would be writing. 

3. he would be writing, they would be writing. 

Past Tense. 

1. I would have been writing, we would have been writing. 

2. thou wouldst have been you would have been writing. 

writing, 

3. he would have been writ- they would have been writ- 

ing, ing. 



Verbs are conjugated by the help of do and did in the follow- 
ing manner : 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

1. I do praise, we do praise, 

2. thou dost praise, you do praise. 
2. he does praise,* they do praise. 

Past Tense. 

1. I did praise, we did praise. 

2. thou didst praise, you did praise. 

3. he did praise, they did praise. 



VERBS. 



35 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 
Do praise, or do thou praise, do praise, or do you praise. 



Verbs are conjugated negatively, interrogatively, and nega- 
tively-interrogatively, in the following manner : 



INDICATIVE MODE. 



Tense. Negatively. Interrogatively. Neg .-Interro g . 



Present^ 
Pres.past, 
Past, 
Prior past 

Future, 
Fut. past, 



I do not praise, 
I have not praised, 
I did not praise, 
I had not praised, 
I shall not praise, 
1 shall not have 
praised, 



do I praise ? 
have I praised ? 
did I praise ? 
had I praised ? 
shall I praise ? 
shall I have 
praised ? 



do I not praise ? 
have I not praised ? 
did 1 not praise? 
had I not praised! 
shall I not praise t 
shall I not have 
praised ? 



POTENTIAL MODE. 

Pres. I can not praise, can I praise ? can I not praise ? 

Pastf I can not have praised, can I have praised 1 can I not have praised? 

CONDITIONAL MODE. 

Indef. I could not praise, could 1 praise ? could I not praise ? 

Past, I could not have prais- could 1 have prais- could I not have prais- 
ed, ed? ed? 



Observe, that when the verb is conjugated negatively, the 
negative adverb, and when it is conjugated interrogatively, the 
pronoun, is placed next after the first auxiliary. When it is 
conjugated negatively-interrogatively, the pronoun and nega- 
tive adverb are placed after the first auxiliary, but it is equally 
proper to place either first ; — Do I not praiise ? do not I praise ? 
— Could he not have praised ? could not he have praisad ? 



36 YERBS. 

Conjugation of a Verb in the Passive form. 

To LOVE. 

[INFINITIVE MODE. 

Indefnite Tense^ To be loved. 

Past Tensdj To have been loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Indefinite J Bein^ loved. 

Pastj Been loved. 

Compound past^ Having been loved. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense.^ 
Singular, Plural. 

1. I am loved, we are loved. 

2. thou art loved, you are loved. 

3. he is loved, they are loved. 

Present past Tense. 

1. I have been loved, we have been loved. 

2. thou hast been loved, you have been loved. 

3. he has been loved, they have been loved. 

Past Tense.^ 

1. I was loved, we were loved. 

2. thou wast loved, you were loved. 

3. he was loved, they were loved. 

Prior past Tense. 

1. I had been loved, we had been loved. 

2. thou hadst been loved, you had been loved. 

3. he had been loved, -^ they had been loved. 

Future Tense* ^ 

1. I shall or will be loved, we shall or will be loved. 

2. thou shalt orwilt be loved, you shall or will be loved. 

3. he shall or will be loved, they shall or will be loved. 

* Be and were may also be used in the present and past tenses, as in 
page 31. 



VERBS. 



37 



Future past Tense. 



1. I shall have been loved, we shall have been loved. 

2. thou shalt or wilt have been you shall or will have been 

loved, loved. 

3. he shall or will have been they shall or will have been 

loved, loved. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense, 

1. I may be loved, we may be loved. 

2. thou may est be loved, yoM may be loved. 

3. he may be loved, they may be loved. 

Past Tense. 

1. I may have been loved, we may have been loved. 

2. thou mayest have been lov- you may have been lov- 

ed, ed. 

3. he may have been loved, they may have been loved. 

CONDITIONAL MODE. 

Indefinite Tense, 

1. I might be loved, we might be loved. 

2. thou mightest be loved, you might be loved. 

3. he might be loved, they might be loved. 

Past Tense. 

1. I might have been loved, we might have been loved. 

2. thou mightesthave been lov- you might have been lov- 

ed, ed. 

3. he might have been loved, they might have been loved. 

IMPERATIVE MODEx 

Present Tense. 

Be loved, or be thou loved, be loved, or be you love^u 
4 -^ 



38 



VERBS. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 

The principal parts of the verb are the indefinite of 
the infinitive, the first person singular of the past tense of 
the indicative, and the past participle. These parts being 
known, and the use of the various signs of the modes and 
tenses, that is to say, the auxiliaries, being also known, the 
conjugation of all verbs is easy. Of the regular verbs, 
the past tense of the indicative and the past participle end 
in ed ; of the irregular verbs, the past tense and past par- 
ticiple end otherwise and variously. 

In the following table, the irregular verbs are divided 
into three classes. The first class consists of those verbs 
which, as they appear in the writings of some authors, are 
regular, and in the writings of others are irregular. The 
second class consists of all the irregular verbs the use of 
which is established and uniform. The third consists of 
those irregular verbs which have various forms in the past 
tense and past participle. Those forms should be pre- 
ferred which are regular, or approach the nearest to re- 
gularity, unless the prevailing practice is evidently oppos- 
ed to it. 



1. Verbs zohich are sometimes used with regular, and some- 
times with irregular terminations, in the past tense and 
past participle. 



Infinitive. 


Past Tense. 


Participle. 


Awake, 


awaked, awoke, 


awaked. 


bend, 


bended, bent. 


bended, bent. 


bereave, 


bereaved, bereft, 


bereaved, bereft. 


burst, 


bursted, burst. 


bursted, burst. 


catch, 


catched, caught, 


catched, caught. 


chide, 


chided, chid. 


chided, chidden. 


clothe, 


clothed, clad, 


clothed, clad. 


cleave* 


cleaved, clove, 


cleaved, cloven, cleft 


creep, 


creeped, crept, 


creeped, crept. 


crow, 


crowed, crew, 


crowed. 



= To split. 



VERBSi 



39 



Infinitive, 


Past Tense, 


Participle. 


dare, 


dared, durst, 


dared. 


dig, 


digged, dug, 


digged, dug. 


deal, 


dealed, dealt, 


dealed, dealt. 


dwell, 


dwelled, dwelt, 


dwelled, dwelt. 


gild, 


gilded, gilt. 


gilded, gilt. 


gird, 


girded, 


girded, girt. 


grave, 


graved, 


graved, gmven. 


hang, 


hanged, hung, 


hanged, hung. ■ 


hear, 


heared, heard, 


heared, heard. 


hew, 


hewed. 


hewed, hewn. 


knit. 


knitted, knit,^ 


knitted, knit. 


learn, 


learned, learnt. 


learned, learnt. 


load, 


loaded. 


loaded, laden. 


mow, 


mowed, 


mowed, mown. 


rive, 


rived. 


rived, riven. 


saw, 


sawed, 


sawed, sawn. 


shape, 


shaped, 


shaped, shapen. 


shave, 


shaved. 


shaved, shaven. 


shine, 


shined, shone, 


shined, shone. 


slit, 


slitted, slit. 


slitted, slit. 


S6W, 


sowed, 


solved, sown. 


spill. 


spilled, spilt, 


spilled, spilt. 


sweat, 


sweated, swet. 


sweated, swet. 


sweD, 


swelled, 


swelled, swollen. 


thrive. 


thrived, throve, 


thrived, thriven. 


wax, 


waxed, 


waxed, waxen. 


work, 


worked, wrought. 


worked, wrought 



2. Irregular verbs, the use of which, in the forms here exhi-^ 
bited, is established and uniform. 



Infinitive. 

Abide,* 

arise, 

be, 

bear,' 

bear,: 

begin, 

beseech. 



Past Tense, Participle. 

abode, abode, 

arose, arisen, 

was, been, 

bare, born, 

bore, borne, 

began, begun* 

besought, besought. 



Infinitive. 


Past Tense, Participle 


bind, 


bound. 


bound. 


bleed. 


bled, 


bled. 


blow. 


blew, 


blown. 


break. 


broke. 


broken. 


breed, 


bred. 


bred. 


bring. 


brought, 


brought. 


build, 


built, 


built. 



* To reside. Abide, signifying to sustain or obey, is regular, 
t To bring forth. % To carry. 



^u 




VERBS. 






Infinitive 


Past Tense, Participle, 


Infinitive 


Past Tense. Participl 


buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


pay, 


paid, 


paid. 


cast, 


cast, 


cast. 


put. 


put, 


put. 


choose, 


chose, 


chosen. 


read, 


read. 


read. 


cling, 


clung, 


clung. 


rend, 


rent, 


rent. 


come, 


came, 


come. 


rid. 


rid. 


rid. 


cost, 


cost, 


cost. 


rise. 


rose, 


risen. 


cut, 


cut. 


cut. 


run, 


ran, 


run. 


do, 


did, 


done. 


say, 


said, 


said. 


draw, 


drew, 


drawn. 


see. 


saw, • 


seen. 


drive, 


drove, 


driven. 


seek, 


sought. 


sought. 


drink, 


drank. 


drunk. 


seU, 


sold. 


sold. 


eat, 


ate, 


eaten. 


send. 


sent. 


sent. 


fall, 


fell, 


fallen. 


set, 


set. 


set. 


feed, 


fed. 


fed. 


shake, 


shook, 


shaken. 


feel, 


felt, 


felt. 


shear, 


sheared, 


shorn. 


fight, 


fought. 


fought. 


shed, 


shed, 


shed. 


find, 


found. 


found. 


show, 


showed, 


shown. 


flee, 


fled, 


fled. 


shoe. 


shod. 


shpd. 


fling, 


flung, 


flung. 


shoot, 


shot, 


shotc 


%, 


flew, 


flown. 


shrink. 


shrunk, 


shrunk. 


forget, 


forgot. 


forgotten. 


shred. 


shred, 


shred. 


forsake, 


forsook, 


forsaken. 


shut, 


shut, 


shut.. 


';*feeze, 


froze. 


frozen. 


sit, 


sat. 


sat. 


give, 


gave. 


given. 


slay, 


slew, 


slain. 


go, 


went. 


gone. 


sleep, 


slept, 


slept. 


grind, 


ground, 


ground. 


slide. 


slid. 


slidden. 


have, 


had. 


had. 


sling. 


slung. 


slung. 


liit, 


hit, 


hit. 


slink. 


slunk, 


slunk. 


hurt, 


hurt. 


hurt. 


smite, 


smote. 


smitten. 


keep, 


kept, 


kept. 


speak, 


spoke, 


spoken. 


know. 


knew, 


known. 


speed, 


sped, 


sped. , 


lade, 


laded. 


laden. 


spend. 


spent. 


spent. 


lay. 


laid. 


laid. 


spin. 


spun, 


spun. 


lead, 


led, 


led. 


split, 


split. 


split. 


leave, 


left, 


left. 


spread, 


spread. 


spread. 


lend, 


lent, 


lent. 


stand, 


stood. 


stood. 


let, 


let, 


let. 


steal, 


stole, 


stolen. 


lie,^^ 


lay, 


lain. 


stick. 


stuck, 


stuck. 


lose, 


lost, 


lost. 


sting; 


stung, 


stung. 


make, 


made, 


made. 


stink. 


stunk. 


stunk. 


meet, 


met, 


met. 

* To lie 


string, 
) down. 


strung, 


strung. 







ADVERBS. 




41 


Ififinitive. 


PastTeme 


. Participle. 


Infinitive. 


Past Tense 


. Particvple. 


strive, 


strove, 


striven. 


thrust. 


thrust. 


thrust. 


swefar, 


swore, 


sworn. 


tread. 


trod, 


trodden. 


swing, 


swung. 


swung. 


wear. 


wore, 


worn. 


take, 


took, 


taken. 


weave. 


wove, 


woven. 


teach. 


taught, 


taught. 


weep. 


wept. 


wept, t 


tear, 


tore. 


torn. 


win, 


won, 


won 


tell, 


told, 


told. 


wind, 


wound. 


wound. 


think, 


thought, 


thought. 


wring, 


wrung, 


wrung. 


thro\v, 


threw, 


thrown. 


write, 


wrote, 


written. 



3. Irregular verbs which have various forms in the past 
tense, or past participle, or both. Those forms which are 
hast used are printed in italic characters. 



Inftnitive. 


Past Tense, 


Participle 


Beat, 


beat. 


beaten, beat. 


bid, 
bite, 


bade, bid^ 

bit, 


bidden, hid. 
bitten, hit. 


get, 

grow, 

hide. 


got, 

groioed, grew, 

hid, 


gotten, got. 
grown, 
hidden, kid. 


hold. 


held. 


kolden, held. 


ride. 


rode, 


ridden, rode. 


ring, 


rang, rung. 


rung. 


sing, 
sink. 


sang, sung, 
sank, sunk, 


sung, 
sunk. 


spit. 


spat, spit. 


spitten, spit. 


spring, 
stride, 


sprang, sprung, 
strode, strid^ 


sprung, 
stridden. 


strike, 


struck, 


stricken, struck 


swim, 


swam. si'Mm, 


swum. 



CHAPTER V. 
OF ADVERBS. 

The word Adverb is formed from two Latin words, ad, 

to. and verbum, verb. 

4* 



42 ADVERBS. 

An abyerb is a word joined to a verb to modify the 
meaning it conveys, or to express some circumstance re- 
specting it. It may also be used to modify the meaning 
cf an adjective or another adverb : — He reads well ; a 
truly good man ; he writes often, and very correctly. 

Adverbs may be divided into classes : 

1. Of Number : — once, twice, thrice, &c. 

2. Of Order : — first, secondly, lastly, primarily, &c. 

3. Of Place : — here, there, where, somewhere, whi- 

ther, upward, whence, whithersoever, &c. 

4. Of Time : — now, to-day, already, hitherto, hereaf- 

ter, often, instantly, daily, ever, since, again, 
&c. 

5. Of Quantity : — much, enough, sufficiently, &c. 

6. Of Manner or Quality : — wisely, foolishly, slowly, 

justly, &c. Adjectives of this kind may be 
formed by adding the termination ly to ad- 
jectives : — hot, hotly ; clean, cleanly ; sorrow- 
ful, sorrowfully. 

7. Of Doubt : — perhaps, peradventure, possibly, per- 

chance, &c. 

8. Of Affirmation : — ^verily, truly, yea, yes, indeed, 

&c. 

9. Of Negation : — nay, no, not, never, by no means, 

not at all, i&c. 

10. Of Interrogation : — how, why, wherefore, &c. 

11. Of Comparison : — more, most, better, best, less, 

least, very, almost, &c. 

Many adverbs are formed by the addition of a preposi- 
tion to the adverbs here, there, where : — hereof, hereto, 
herein, herewith ; thereby, therefore ; whereupon. 

A preposition placed after a verb, and having no object 
expressed nor understood, modifies the meaning of the 
verb, and becomes an adverb : — to ride about ; to pass on ; 
to take off, &c. In the English language there are many 
words which belong sometimes to one part of speech, and 
sometimes to another. 

Such combinations of words as, by no means, not at 



PREPOSITIONS. 43 

all, nevertheless, at present, &c., may be called com- 
pound adverbs. 

Some adverbs are compared like adjectives: — soon, 
sooner, soonest. Those ending in ly are compared by 
more and most : — ^wisely, more wisely, most wisely. 



CHAPTER VI 

OF PREPOSITIONS. 

The word Preposition is formed from the Latin words 
prcB, before, and positio^ position, from pono^ to place. 

Prepositions are generally placed before nouns and 
pronouns, and shew the relation or connection between 
actions or qualities and objects, or between different ob- 
jects ; in other words, between verbs or adjectives and 
nouns or pronouns, or between different nouns or pro- 
nouns : — he went /rom Boston to Philadelphia ; she is su- 
perior to him ; this harbor is convenient for shipping ; to 
write with a pen ; they spoke tome; a mountain of salt ; 
the way of a ship on the sea. The force of the preposi- 
tion rests on the noun or pronoun which it is said to go- 
vern. 

Verbs are often compounded of a preposition and a 
verb : — to uphold, to invest, to overlook ; and this connec- 
tion sometimes gives a new sense to the verb^: — to under- 
stand, to/orgive. But the preposition is more frequently 
placed after the verb, and the meaning of the verb is then 
even more variant from its original meaning : — to cast up 
an account, to faH on, to give over. A preposition so 
placed, if not considered a part of the verb, as it i§ when 
placed before it, must be treated as an adverb qualifying 
the verb. 

A list of the principal Prepositions* 



Of. 


for. 


at. 


on or upon, 


to. 


by. 


into. 


between. 


over. 


above. 


from. 


beneath. 


under. 


below. 


down. 


before. 



u 



up. 
with, 
aftex. 
againsjt* 



CONJUNCTIONS. 




through. 


about. 


behind. 


in. 


within. 


besides. 


among. 


without 


beyond. 


amidst. 


around. 


towards 



CHAPTER VII. 

OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

The word Conjunction is derived from the Latin word 
conjungo, to join together. 

A conjunction is a word used to join or connect senten- 
ces or words. 

Some conjunctions are called copulative, and some dis- 
junctive^ conjunctions. 

The copulative conjunction connects words and sen- 
tences where no opposition or contrariety of meaning is 
intended to be expressed : — my brother and myself study 
Latin ; the good man labours to promote the happiness of 
his fellow beings, and they, on their part, ought to reward 
by revering him ; he is happy because he is good. 

The disjunctive conjunction connects words and sen- 
tences, but shows an opposition or contrariety of mean- 
ing :•— my brother studies Latin, but I do not ; the good man 
labors to promote the happiness of his fellow beings, hut 
the uHrighteous man opposes them ; though he appears 
to be happy, yet he is not. 

Jl list of the principal Conjunctions, 



COPULATIVE. 

And. if. that, 

then, since. for. 

therefore. wherefore. 



both, 
because. 



ELLIPSIS. 



DISJUNCTIVE. 



45 



But. or. nor. as. 

than. lest. though, unless. 

either. neither. yet: not\vithstanding. 

Several words are used, sometimes as a conjunction, 
sometimes as an adverb, and sometimes as a preposition. 



CHAPTER VUL 

OP INTERJECTIONS. 

The word Interjection is derived from the Latin word 
interjicio, to throw between. 

Words or sounds uttered imder the operation of sud- 
den or violent emotion, whether pleasing or painful, are 
called Interjections. Home Tooke thinks they are not 
worthy to be considered a part of speech, and says that 
the barking of a dog is an interjection. Some of the 
words so denominated by grammarians, are ; ah ! alas ! 
O ! oh ! pish ! foh ! pah ! bah ! fie ! wonderful ! O dear ! 
ha ! ha ! ha ! 

Lo ! behold ! hark ! &c. are verbs in the imperative 
mode. 



CHAPTER IX. 
ELLIPSIS. 



In many instances, in speaking and composition, the 
different parts of speech are not expressed nor written, 
and it is necessary that they should be suppUed in order 



46 ELLIPSIS. 

to render the sentence grammatically complete. Parts 
of sentences, equally necessary to be supplied for the 
same purpose, are also frequently omitted. This omis- 
sion of words, and parts of sentences, is called Ellipsis. 
It is resorted to in order to avoid the unpleasant repeti- 
tion of words. 

In the following sentences, the words printed in Ro- 
man characters are all which are necessary to be used in 
writing or speaking. The words printed in Itahc cha- 
racters, and also enclosed in parentheses, must be supplied 
or understood in order to render the sentence grammati- 
cally complete. 

Ellipsis of the Koun, 

A kind (husband)^ tender (^husband), and faithful hus- 
band. 

Virtue supports in adversity and (virtue) moderates in 
prosperity. 

One man admires one thing, another {man)y another 
(thing). 

He went to St. Paul's {church). Whose book is this 
{book) ? It is Peter's {book). 

In all cases, repeating the words renders the sentence 
emphatic. " Christ the power of God, and the wisdom 
of God," is more emphatic than, Christ the power and 
wisdom of God. 

Ellipsis of the Pronoun. 

I love {him) and (/) fear him. This is the man (zohom) 
they love. These are the goods {xohich) they bought. 

Ellipsis of the Adjective. 

My father, {my) brother, {my) sisters and {my) mother. 
The men, {the) women and {the) children. A delightful 
garden and {a delightful) orchard. Washington was a 
great scholar, {a great) statesman, and (a great) general 



ELLIPSIS. 47 



Ellipsis of the Verb. 

The man was old, and {was) crafty. He went to Bos- 
ton and {he went) to Salem. She dislikes him and {she 
dislikes) me. 

Do thy duty, my son, and if thou {shouldst) prosper, 
be not elated ; and if thou {shouldst) be afflicted, repine 
not. Whatever {may) be his object, he always succeeds^. 
His opinion, whatever it {may) be, should be known. I 
will wait until my change {shall) come. I have seen 
and (/ have) heard him frequently. He will lose his 
estate and {he will) incur reproach. If he (shall) ask 
a fish, will ye give him a serpent ? 

He regards his word, but thou dost not {regard it). 
They did not obey, so strictly as they ought {to have obey- 
ed), the commands of their parents. 

Ellipsis of the Participle. 

{Being) admired and applauded, he became vain. He 
lived {being) admired, and died {being) respected by all 
who knew him. 

Ellipsis of the Adverb. 

He teaches his scholars to spell {correctly), read (cor- 
rectly), and write correctly. Thrice I went and {thrice I) 
offered my service. He preached {daily) and prayed 
daily. 

Ellipsis of the Preposition. 

He travelled through New- York and {through) Ver- 
mont. He spoke to every man and {to) every woman 
there. He gave {to) me that book. My brother is like 
{to or unto) him. {On) this day. {In the) next month. 
He walked ( ) a mile. The Lord do that which 

seemeth {to) him good. 



48 ELLIPSIS. 



Ellipsis of the Conjunction, 

God is to be loved for his truth, {and) goodness, (and) 
mercy and grace. If I should go, and {if) he should not. 
Though I love him, {yet) I do not flatter him. 

In some instances, when the conjunction if is omitted, 
the auxiliary is placed before the pronoun : — had I known 
this before ; were I able, I would go with you ; that is, 
if I had laiown ; if I were able. 

[Ellipsis of the sign of the Infinitive, to. 

To, the sign of the infinitive, is omitted before the verbs 
which follow bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, see, 
and some others : — he bids me {to) go ; they heard him 
{to) speak ; you need not {to) write. 

When two or more verbs in the infintive mode are 
used in succession, it is omitted before all but the first : — 
He determined to see him, {to) hear him, and {to) speak 
to him. 

Ellipsis of part of a Sentence, 

{He being) conscious of his own weight and import- 
ance, the aid of others was not solicited. 

Folly meets with success in this world, but it is true, 
notwithstanding {that folly meets with success in this 
world), that it labors under disadvantages. 

He'will often argue that if this part of our trade were 
well cultivated, we should gain from one nation ; and if 
another {part of our trade were well cultivated, we should 
gain) from another (nation). 

The ellipsis or omission of words is very common in 
all languages, and to this habit, prevailing most in ordinary 
discourse, may doubtless be attributed the formation of 
such phrases as at first, at best, as it were, &c., which can- 
not be resolved or parsed by any of the rules of syntax. 



SYNTAX. 40 

PART II. 

SYNTAX. 

Syntax treats of sentences ; or, in other terms, of the 
agreement, government, and arrangement of the words 
composing a sentence. 

Words are said to agree with each other, when, in 
consequence of some relation between them, they are 
used in the same number, person, and gender. 

One word is said to govern another, when the govern- 
ing word requires the word governed to be in a certain 
case. 

In many languages, agreement and government are de- 
noted by the mode in which words are spelled. The En- 
ghsh language presents but few instances in which agree- 
ment and government are so denoted. 

The number and person of a verb can, in most cases, 
be ascertained only by regarding the nominative ; the 
nominative and objective cases of nouns can only be as- 
certained by regarding their position and the sense of the 
passage. 

Writing is synthesis or composition ; by which is meant 
putting several words together, in a proper order, and 
forming a sentence. Parsing is analysis or resolution ; by 
which is meant taking a sentence to pieces, and describing 
each word individually, by stating to what part of speech 
it belongs, what word it agrees with, by what word it is 
governed, &c. 

Every language has certain rules according to which it 
must be written and spoken ; and by the same rules, so 
far as they go, what is written and spoken must be parsed. 

The English language, having but little inflection, has 
need of but few rules. The noun refuses to change its 
dress at the command of every set of verbs or preposi- 
tions ; the adjective does not submit to wear the livery of 
the noun ; and the verb disdains to be governed by a 
conjunction. 



50 SYNTAX. 



RULE I. 

All nouns and pronouns, not governed by a 
transitive verb, participle, or preposition, are in 
the nominative case. 

Kote 1. This rule includes all nouns and pronouns 
which designate, or stand for, the agents performing the 
actions described by the verb : — he walks ; the horse draws 
the chaise ; Bonaparte commanded the army ; the sun 
shines. 

Note 2. Nouns and pronouns which follow an intransi- 
tive verb or its participle, are in the nominative case, un- 
less governed by a preposition understood, or by a prece- 
ding transitive verb : — I am he ; they are the men ; Tom 
struts a soldier ; a calf becomes an ox ; she looks a god- 
dess, and she moves a queen; Bonaparte being an able 
general, the kings of Europe dared not oppose him. 

Note 3. When an address is made to a person, the 
noun or pronoun is in the nominative case : — O thou, who 
rulest the heavens ! O house of Israel ; it must be so, 
Plato, thou reasonest well ; I am, sir, your obedient ser- 
vant. 

Note 4. A noun or pronoun joined with a participle, 
and standing independent of the rest of the sentence, is in 
the nominative case : — shame being lost, all virtue is lost ; 
that question having been decided, we need not again 
consider it ; Pontius Pilate being governor of Judea, the 
w^ord of God came unto John ; " I have, notwithstanding 
this discouragement, attempted a dictionary of the English 
language." This is called the nominative case indepen- 
dent. 

Note 5. Nouns and pronouns following verbs in the 
passive form, when no preposition intervenes, are in the 
nominative case : — the child was named Thomas ; Wel- 
lington was created a duke; Washington was chosen 
president ; the general was saluted emperor. 

Note 6. Nouns of measure or dimension, when follow- 
ed by an adjective, are in the nominative case : — their 



SYNTAX. 



51 



march was arrested by a wall ten ftti high ; this street 
is twenty yards wide ; a town six milts square ; water 
ten fathoms deep. 

Note 7. That the objective case is placed after some 
interjections may be stated as an exception to this rule :— 
Ah me ; Oh me, &c. 

Note §. The noun or pronoun, which is the nominative 
to a verb, is called the Agent. 



RULE 11. • 

A verb must agree with its nominative in num- 
ber and person. 

Examples : — I love^ thou /prcsf, he loves ; we'^/oi^e, you 
/oDe, they love. Hem each of the pronouns is the nomi- 
native to the following verb, which, according to the rule, 
agrees with its nominative. The spelling of the verb, in 
the second and third persons singular, is changed to de- 
note this agreement ; but when it is not changed, the 
verb is, nevertheless, said to be in the same number and 
person as the nominative. When the nominative is a 
noun, the rule is the same : — a man loves ; men love. 

Note 1. When a pronoun and a noun, or two or more 
nouns, stand together, being identical in meaning or re. 
presenting the same thing, the single idea or thing signi- 
fied prevails over the several names of the thing, and the 
verb must be in the singular number : — thou, traitor, deser- 
vest death ; Jesus Christ, the Son of God and the Saviour 
of the world, is entitled to the veneration of men. 

Note 3. When two ©r more nouns or pronouns, repre- 
senting different things, are connected by a copulative 
conjunction, the verb must be in the plural number : — Rus- 
sia, France, and England are powerful nations. 

Note 3. When two or more nouns or pronouns, each 
in the singular number, are connected by a disjunctive 



52 SYNTAX. 

conjunction, the verb must be in the singular : — Neither 
Alexander^ nor Ccesar, nor Bonaparte, was happy. When 
either of the nominatives is plural, the verb must be plu- 
ral : — neither poverty nor riches were injurious to him ; but 
in this case the plural noun or pronoun should be placed 
next to the verb. 

J\''ote 4. It is a general rule that the three persons take 
precedence as they are numbered ; when, therefore, sin- 
gular nouns or pronouns, of different persons, are con- 
nected by copulative conjunctions, the verb, which must 
be plural, agrees in person with the nominative of highest 
rank : — ^James, and thou, and I are attached to our coun- 
try ; thou and he are to share it between you. In the 
first axample are is of the first person ; in the last, of the 
second. When nouns or pronouns of diflferent persons 
are connected by a disjunctive conjunction, the verb 
agrees with the nominative placed nearest to it :— I or thou 
art in fault ; thou or I am in fault ; I, or thou, or he is the 
author of it. 

J{ote 5. When a noun of multitude is used, the verb 
may be in either the singular or plural number ; but in 
some cases one is more proper than the other. If the 
expression conveys the idea of plurality, the plural must 
be used ; if of unity, the singular must be used : — the mul- 
titude was large ; here the multitude is considered as one 
body : — the multitude pursue pleasure as their chief good ; 
here the individuals composing the multitude are referred 
to : — this people has become a great nation ; my people do 
not consider, they have not known me. When a noun of 
multitude is preceded by a, this, every, or any other word 
distinctly importing one or unity, the verb is generally in 
the singular number : — this company is large ; every poli- 
tical p3.Yty pursues its own interests. 

J^ote 6. In many expressions, the noun which precedes, 
and that which follows, the verb to be, are in the nomina- 
tive. The verb may then agree in number with either ; 
but taste and usage must be consulted m determining 
with which it should agree. It should generally agree 
with that nominative which is nearest, and with the first 
when both are equally near : — his meat was locusts and 
wild honey ; the wages of sin is death ; words are wind. 



SYNTAX. 53 

Note 7. The infinitive mode, a part of a sentence, or 
several parts of a sentence, may be the nominative to a 
verb : — to enjoy is to obey ; a desire to excel others in 
learning is commendable ; to be temperate in eating and 
drinking, to use exercise in the open air, and to preserve 
the mind free from tumultuous emotions, contribute essen- 
tially to the preservation of health. 

Note 8. The verb is generally placed next after its 
nominative; but in the following, and other similar ex- 
pressions, jt is correctly placed before it : — read thou ; con- 
Jidest thou in me ? long live the king ! The nominative is 
also frequently placed after the verb in poetr}% and in what 
is called the inverted style : — "Now came still evening on ;" 
" out fiew millions of flaming swords ;" " whom ye igno- 
rantly worship, him declare I unto you." 

Note 9. The verb is often separated from its nomina- 
tive by one or more clauses of a sentence commencing 
with a relative pronoun : — the man who transgresses, shall 
be punished ; Washington, who led our armies to victory, 
who guided our councils in peace, and whom the world 
so justly admires, was good as well as great ; — here Wash- 
ington is the nominative to was^ who to guided, and world 
to admires; zohom is in the objective case, and is govern- 
ed by admires. 

Note 10. The verb is often separated from the nomina- 
tive when the latter is qualified by an adjective : — he, con- 
scious of his innocence, disdained to reply. A different 
arrangement would be equally proper : — conscious of his 
innocence, he disdained to reply. 



RULE III. 

Pronouns agree with the nouns for which they 
stand in gender and number ; and relative pro- 
nouns agree wdth their antecedents in gender, 
number, and person. 

Examples : — the king was crowned, but he did not reign 



64 SYNTAX. 

long ; the queen left the kingdom, but she returned soon 
after ; grass, when it is cut and dried, becomes hay ; the 
wolf and the moose w^ere once common in our forests, 
but they are now seldom seen. 

/. who speak from experience ; thou, who lovest wis- 
dom ; you, who love wisdom ; the stone which the builders 
refused. 

Js^ote 1. The pronoun is not always of the same person 
as the noun for which it stands, especially when other 
words intervene ; — /, who give you this order, am the ge- 
neral v/ho commands to-day ; thou, who givest this order, 
art the general who commands to-day. In both of these 
examples, general is in the third person, although the pro- 
nouns, / and thou, are in the first and second. 

J^ote 2. When a relative pronoun is used in asking a 
question, the noun or pronoun expressing the answer must 
be in the same case : — zvho gave you that book ? he gave 
it to me. Of whom did he buy it ? of the bookseller. 
Whose hat is this ? It is Peler^s. Whom do you see ? him 
of whom we spoke ; that is, supplying the ellipsis, I see 
him of whom W'e spoke. 

JSi^ote 3. A pronoun sometimes stands as the represen- 
tative of a part of a sentence : — his friend bore the abuse 
very patiently, lohich served to increase his rudeness ; 
bodies, which have no taste, and no powder of affecting the 
skin, may, notwithstanding this, act upon organs which are 
more deUcate. 

J^ote 4. When the relative is in the objective case, it is 
always placed before the verb and its nominative : — he 
whom you seek ; the tree which the lightning struck ; who, 
that God loves, can complain of affliction ? 



RULE IV. 

Transitive verbs govern the objective case. 

Examples: — he loves her; they struck him; do you 
credit the report ? the stone weighs a hundred pounds. 



SYNTAX. 55 

J^ote L Transitive verbs sometimes govern two objec- 
tive words : — he taught his pupils the art of reasoning ; the 
ring cost the purchaser an eagle ; they called him, John ; 
they appointed him captain ; all Europe feared Bonaparte, 
the emperor of the French and king of Italy. In these 
and similar cases, there is no elhpsis of the verb which 
governs the first noun. In such expressions as the fol- 
lowing, there is an ellipsis, or omission, of the verb before 
each noun : — Charles the fifth governed Spain, Holland^ 
and Germany. It is not usual in parsing to supply the 
verb, but to consider each noun as governed by the verb 
expressed. 

Note 2. Transitive verbs sometimes govern two nouns 
or pronouns which have the verb to be, and some other 
intransitive verbs, in the infinitive mode, between them : — 
believe that man to be your friend, who adheres to you 
in adversity ; did you suppose him to be me ? they wish- 
ed him to continue their friend. This remark applies 
also to the interrogative sentences where the relative is 
placed before the verb : — whom did you suppose me to be ? 

Note 3. The same verb is sometimes transitive and 
sometimes intransitive : — ^to live righteously ; here live is 
intransitive and has no object after it : — ^to live a fife of 
virtue ; here live is transitive and governs life : — ^the forest 
extends to the western boundary of the state ; the prison- 
er extended his arms, crying for mercy. 

Note 4. As a sentence, or part of a sentence, is some- 
times the nominative of a verb, so it is sometimes the ob- 
ject of a transitive verb : — he declined going to Boston ; 
suppose then the world we live in to have had a creator ; I 
admit all, except speaking the words set forth in the first 
part of the indictment. It sometimes also follows a noun 
in the possessive case : — he was averse to the nation's in- 
volving itself in war ; he can have no notion of a person's 
possessing so many different accomplishments. 

Note 5. The objective case is usually placed after the 
verb which governs it ; but the relative pronoun, when in 
that case, is placed before it : — choose ye, this day, whorn 
ye wiil serve ; the events, zohich I have seen, I will de- 
scribe. It is often placed before it in the inverted style ; — 



56 



SYNTAX. 



she, with extended arms, his aid implores ; whom ye igno- 
rantly worship, him declare I unto you. 

M)te 6. Transitive verbs in the passive form do not go- 
vern the objective case. 



RULE V. 

Indefinite and compound participles of transi- 
tive verbs govern the objective case. 

Examples : — As soon as the traveller arrived, his friends 
were seen embracing him and welcoming him home ; 
they found him transgressing the laws ; having conquered 
the enemy, he returned home. 

Kote 1. Participles generally belong to some noun or 
pronoun expressed or understood; but they are some- 
times used indefinitely, and without being thus connect- 
ed : — It is not possible to act otherwise, considering the 
weakness of our nature ; and he said unto them, hinder 
me not, seeing the Lord hath prospered my way ; gene- 
rally speaking, the heir at law is not bound by the inten- 
tion of the testator ; granting this to be true, it does not 
affect the case ; I speak concerning Christ and the church. 

J^ote 2. By placing some of the defining adjectives be- 
fore, and the preposition of after, an indefinite participle, 
the participle is changed into a noun : — the repenting of 
sinners gives joy in heaven ; a withholding of assistance ; 
this rejoicing of his people was grateful to the king. 



RULE VL 

Prepositions govern the objective case. 

Examples : — he gave the letter to me ; I took the book 
from them ; they travelled with lis ; he went fro7n New- 
York to Boston by land. 



SYNTAX. 57 

Note 1. The preposition is generally placed before the 
noun or pronoun which it governs ; but sometimes it is 
placed after it, and at a distance : — Whom will you give it 
io ? the man whom I travelled •mxth was agreeable. This 
arrangement is admissible in conversation ; but in writ- 
ing it would be more elegant to place the words in their 
natural order, thus : — to x^om will you give it ? wiih whom 
I travelled. The following is another example of the se- 
paration of a preposition from the noun which it go- 
verns : — he departed for, but never arrived at, the East 
Indies. This, though grammatical, is not elegant. 

Js%te 2. Prepositions are often omitted : — give it me ; 
that is, to me : buy him some books ; that is, /or him : he 
went to Boston, yesterday ; that is, on yesterday : I will 
wait all the week ; that is, through all the week : a horse 
can run a mile in three minutes ; that is, through or over 
the extent of a mile. When the noun home follows verbs 
of motion, a preposition is seldom used, but must be un- 
derstood. 

Note 3. Prepositions sometimes govern parts of senten- 
ces: — he accomplished his purpose by observing these 
rules and precautions ; he was prevented from conquer- 
ing the Russian empire. 



RULE VII. 

Adjectives generally belong to nouns or pro- 
nouns which they qualify or dejfine, and should 
be placed near to them. 

Examples : — a strong man ; a beautiful woman ; he is 
unfit to be the ruler of a free people ; this prospect is de- 
lightful beyond expression. 

Note 1. The adjective is usually placed before the noun 
to which it belongs ; but it may be placed after it, 

1. When several adjectives belong to one noun : — a 
prince discreet, just, and benevolent. 



58 SYNTAX. 

2. When something depends on the adjective :— feed 
Hjie with food convenient for me. 

3. When an adjective is used as a title, or is emphati- 
cal : — Alexander the great ; goodness infinite. 

4. When the adjective is preceded by an adverb : — a 
boy regularly studious. 

5. When the action of a transitive verb produces the 
quality described : — vanity renders its possessor despicable. 

Note 2. Adjectives are sometimes used, like adverbs, 
to modify verbs, especially in poetry : — drink deep or 
taste not the Pierrian spring ; heaven opened wide her 
ever during gate. 

Note 3. Adjectives are used to qualify verbs in the in- 
finitive mode, and parts of sentences : — to see is pleasant ; 
to be a coward is disgraceful ; agreeable to this we read of 
names being blotted out of God's book ; he may have in- 
tended to shew me the paper ; but that he did not do so, 
is certain. 

Note 4. Some adjectives are used to qualify others :— 
a green silk bonnett ; a red hot Russia iron bar. In the 
last example, the adjective a defines the noun bar^ red 
qualifies hot, Russia qualifies or defines iron^ and iron 
qualifies bar. 

Note 5. Adjectives are often used indefinitely, no noun 
being expressed, and no particular noun being under- 
stood : — many are called, but few chosen ; none but the 
brave deserve the fair. When adjectives are so used, the 
verb is generally plural. 

Note 6. They are often used in a still more indefinite 
manner, especially when they follow verbs in the infini- 
tive mode : — to be good is to be happy ; to be blind is cala- 
mitous ; to live happy is the desire of all men. 



RULE VIII. 

Adverbs belong to verbs, participle?, adjectives, 
and other adverbs, the meaning of which they 



SYNTAX. 59 

modify, and near to which they should be plac- 
ed. 

Examples : — that lady walks gracefully ; the troops 
were seen marching rapidly towards the river ; words 
fitly spoken ; the king became extremely odious to the 
people ; he spoke very eloquently. 

J^ote 1. When an auxiliary is used, the adverb is com- 
monly placed between the auxihary and the principal 
verb : — I have often seen him ; s{ie is much admirede 
When two auxiliaries are used, the adverb is commonly 
placed after the second : — they have been properly pu- 
nished. But in regard to the position of adverbs no in- 
variable rule can be given. 

J^ote 2. Two negatives, whether adverbs or not, when 
used in the same sentence, destroy each other, and the 
expression is affirmative : — nor did they not perceive him ; 
that is no uncommon occurrence. 



RULE IX. 

The several parts of a sentence should corre- 
spond to each other, and the relations of time^ 
contrast, and comparison be carefully observed. 

Examples of the violation of this rule will best explain 
its meaning and shew its importance : — " a beautiful field 
and trees ;" here a beautiful cannot refer to trees ; the 
repetition of beautiful alone before trees will render the 
sentence correct, for that will lead the hearer to under- 
stand that the adjective a is dropped ; a beautiful field and 
beautiful trees. 

" The Court of chancery mitigates and breaks the teeth 
of the common law." The natural construction of this 
sentence is, that the court mitigates the teeth, &c. If it 
should be desirable to make use of these words, they 



60 SYNTAX- 

might, to express what was probably intended, be arrang- 
ed thus : — the court of chancery mitigates the common 
law, and breaks the teeth of it. 

The relations of time should be observed by the use 
of the proper tenses ; and to ascertain what tenses should 
be used, it is necessary to fix in the mind the time, or 
relative time, of the actions described by each verb in 
the sentence, or specified by other words : — " I feared 
that I should have lost the parcel before I arrived at the 
city ;" here the apprehended loss must have been subse- 
quent to the fear, but should have lost denotes a previous, 
or the same, time. It should be, I feared that / should 
lose the parcel, &c. 

'' I will pay the vows which my lips have uttered when 
I was in trouble." The vows were uttered when (at the 
same time) he was in trouble ; both verbs should there- 
fore be in the same tense : — which my lips uttered. 

" It would have afforded me satisfaction, if I could per- 
form it." The satisfaction could not have been previous 
to the performance ; but the tense used denotes a pre- 
vious time. The sentence would be rendered correct by 
changing either of the tenses : — it zoould afford — or, if I 
could have performed it. 

" There was a time when I intended to have written." 
The time of writing must have been subsequent to the 
intention : — intended to write. 

" This is a book which proves itself to be written by 
the person whose name it bears. *^' The book must have 
been written before the time denoted by the verb proves : 
-^to have been written is the proper tense. 

" They have resided in Italy until a few months ago." 
The clause, a few months ago, separates, from present 
time, the time to which the verb refers, and the use of the 
present past tense is therefore improper ; the past tense, 
resided, should have been used. 

The relations of contrast and comparison are generally 
expressed by conjunctions and adjectives. Certain con- 
junctions have corresponding conjunctions, both of which 
should be used when opposition or conformity is intend- 
ed to be expressed : thus, neither requires nor — either, or 
— though, yet or nevertheless — as, as or that — so, as or 



PARSING^ 61 

that. Some, such, so much, and as much, require as ; 
and adjectives in the comparative degree require than. 

The following sentence, therefore, violates the rule above 
given : — he was more beloved, but not so much admired, 
as Cinthio. Here viore is not followed by its correspond- 
ing word than. The sentence may be corrected thus : — 
he was more beloved thari, but not so much admired as, 
Cinthio ; or better thus : — he w^as more beloved than 
Cinthio, but not so much admired ; — as Cinthio being un- 
derstood at the end. 

In the following sentences the rule is violated : 

Neither the cold or (nor) the fervid, but characters 
uniformly warm, are formed for friendship. 

The dog in the manger would not (neither) eat the hay 
himself, nor suffer the ox to eat it. 

They had no sooner risen, but (than) they applied 
themselves to their studies. 

Be ready to succor such persons who (as) need your 
assistance. 



DIRECTIONS FOR PARSING. 

Parsing is but an exercise prescribed to the scholar for 
the purpose of ascertaining the progress he has made in 
the study of Grammar, of rendering more familiar to him 
the knowledge he has acquired, and of enabling him to 
apply it. 

George struck me. 

" George" is a proper noun in the singular number, 
third person, masculine gender, and nominative case ; 
" struck'' is a transitive verb in the indicitive mpde, past 
tense, third person, singular number, and agrees with 
George, its nominative ; " me" is a personal pronoun in 
the first person, singular number, objective case, and is 
governed by the transitive verb, struck. 

6 



63 PARSING. 

Vice produces misery. 

" Vice" is a common noun in the singular number, third 
person, neuter gender, and nominative case ; " produces" 
is a transitive verb in the indicative mode, present tense, 
third person, singular number, and agrees with its nomina- 
tive, vice ; " misery" is a common noun in the singular 
number, third person, neuter gender, objective case, and 
is governed by produces. 

Peace and joy are virtue's crown. 

"Peace" is a common noun in the singular number, 
third person, neuter gender, and nominative case ; ** and" 
is a copulative conjunction ; "joy" is a common noun^ 
&c, ; (the number, person, gender, and case, should be 
mentioned by the scholar) ; " are" is an intransitive verb 
in the indicative mode, present tense, third person, plural 
number, and agrees with peace and joy ; " virtue's" is a 
common noun in the singular number, neuter gender, third 
person, and possessive case ; " crown" is a common noun 
in the singular number, third person, neuter gender, and 
nominative case, being preceded by are, an intransitive 
verb. 

Neither vice nor folly confers happiness. 

" Neither" is a disjunctive conjunction ; " vice" is a 
common noun, &c. ; "nor" is a disjunctive conjunction; 
" folly" is a common noun, &c. ; " confers" is a transitive 
verb in the indicative mode, present tense, third person, 
singular number, and agrees with vice ^ud folly, each se- 
parately, they being connected by a disjunctive conjunc- 
tion ; " happiness" is a common noun in the neuter gen- 
der, singular number, third person, and objective case, and 
is governed by confers. 

••They saw him pursuing the deer. 

*^ They" is a personal pronoun in the third person, plu- 
ral number, and nominative case ; " saw" is a transitive 
verb in the indicative mode, past tense, third person, plu- 



PARSING. 63 

ral number, and agrees with ihey; "him'' is a personal 
pronoun in the third person, singular number, mascuHne 
gender, objective case, and is governed by saw ; " pursu- 
ing" is an indefinite participle derived from to pursue^ a 
transitive verb, and relates or belongs to him ; " the" is a 
defining adjective, and belongs to deer ; " deer" is a com- 
mon noun in the third person, neuter gender, either num- 
ber, objective case, and is governed hy pursuing. 

The boy will not be pardoned unless he should 
repent. 

"The" is a defining adjective and belongs to the noun, 
boy ; "boy" is a common noun, &c. ; " will be pardoned" 
is a verb in the passive form, indicative mode, future 
tense, third person, singular number, and agrees with boy ; 
" not" is an adverb, and modifies will be pardoned ^ " un- 
less" is a disjunctive conjunction ; " he" is a personal 
pronoun in the third person, masculine gender, singular 
number, nominative case, and agrees with boy ; " should 
repent" is an intransitive verb in the conditional mode, 
indefinite tense, third person, singular number, and agrees 
with he. Should is often omitted, in similar expressions, 
but must be supplied in parsing. 

Good works being neglected, devotion is false. 

^' Good" is a qualifying adjective and belongs to works ; 
^* works" is a common noun, &:c. ; '' being neglected*' is 
a past participle in the passive form, and relates to xijorks ; 
this clause standing independent of the rest of the sen- 
tence, the noun, rvorks, is in the nominative case inde- 
pendent ; "devotion" is a common noun, &c. ; " is" is an 
intransitive verb, &c. ; " false" is a qualifying adjective, 
and belongs to devotion. 

To err is human. 

" To err'" is a verb in the infinitive mode, and indefinite 
tense; "is" is an intna^isitive verb, &c., and agrees with 
to err, its nominative ; " human" is a qualifying adjective, 
and belongs to to err. 



64 



PARSING. 



To countenance men, who are guilty of wicked 
actions, is highly criminal. 

" To countenance'' is a transitive verb in the infinitive 
mode, indefinite tense ; " men" is a common noun, &c. ; 
" who" is a relative personal pronoun in the third person, 
plural number, masculine gender, nominative case, and 
agrees with men, its antecedent ; " are" is an intransitive 
verb, &c. ; " guilty'' is a qualifying adjective and belongs 
to men ; " of" is a preposition ; " wicked" is a qualifying 
adjective and belongs to actions ; " actions" is a common 
noun in the third person^ plural number, neuter gender, 
objective case, and governed by of; "to countenance 
men who are guilty of wicked actions," being part of a 
sentence, is the nominative lo is ; " is" is an intransitive 
verb, &c. ; "highly" is an adverb and modifies criminal ; 
"criminal" is a qualifying adjective, and belongs to or 
qualifies the first part of the sentence. 

Let me proceed. 

" Let" is a transitive verb in the imperative mode ; 
" me" is a personal pronoun in the first person, singular 
number, objective case, and governed by Itl ; " proceed" 
is an intransitive verb in the infinitive mode, indefinite 
tense, the sign to being omitted. 

He may go if he can. 

" May go'' is an intransitive verb in the potential mode, 
present tense, third person, singular number, and agrees 
with he ; " can go" (go being understood) is an intransi- 
tive verb in the potential mode, present tense, third per- 
son, singular number, and agrees with the second he. 

He might walk if he would. 

" Might walk" is an intransitive verb in the conditional 
mode, indefinite tense, third person, singular number, and 
agrees with he ; " would walk," {walk being understood) 
is an intransitive verb in the conditional mode, indefinite 
tense, third person, singular number, and agrees with the 
second he. 



PARSING, 65 

If you had visited him, he would have been glad 
to see you. 

"Had visited" is a transitive verb in the indicative 
mode, prior past tense, second person, plural number, and 
agrees with you ; " would have been" is an intransitive 
verb in the conditional mode, past tense, third person, sin- 
gular number, and agrees with he. 

This bounty has relieved you and me, and has 
gratified the donor. 

" This" is a defining adjective, and belongs to bounty ; 
" bounty'' is a common noun, &c. ; " has relieved" is a 
transitive verb in the indicative mode, present past tense, 
third person, singular number, and agrees with bounty ; ' 
" you" is a personal pronoun in the objective case, &c. ; 
*^ and" is a conjunction ; " me^' is a personal pronoun in 
the objective case, &c. ; you and me are governed by has 
relieved; "and" is a conjunction; ''has gratified" is a 
transitive verb, &c,, agreeing with bounty ; " the'' is a de- 
fining adjective and belongs to donor ; " donor" is a com- 
mon noun, &c., and is governed by has gratified. 

Wait the great teacher^ death, and God adore. 

" Wait," as here used, is a transitive verb in the impe- 
rative mode; "the" is a defining adjective and belongs 
to teacher ; "great" is a qualifying adjective and belongs 
to teacher ; "teacher" and "death" are common nouns, 
each signifying the same thing, in the singular number^ 
neuter gender, objective case, and governed by wait; 
"and" is a conjunction; "adore" is a transitive verb in 
the imperative mode ; " God" is a proper noun, in the sin- 
gular number, masculine gender, objective case, and go- 
verned by adore. 

Time flies, O how swiftly! 

" Time" is a common noun, &c. ; " flies" is an intran- 
sitive verb, &c. ; " O" is an interjection ; " how" is an 
adverb, and modifies swiftly ; " swiftly" is an adverb, and 

modifies y??e5'. 

6* 



QQ PARSING. 

There the wicked cease from troubling, and there 
the weary be at rest. 

" Wicked'V is an adjective used as a noun ; " cease" is 
an intransitive verb in the indicative mode, present tense, 
third person, plural number, and agrees with wicked; 
'- weary'' is an adjective used as a noun ; " be" is an in- 
transitive verb in the indicative mode, present tense, third 
person, plural number, and agrees with weary. 

The sun, the centre of the universe, and the 
fountain of light, is the largest of the heavenly 
bodies. 

" Sun," " centre,'' and " fountain" are common nouns, 
all meaning the same thing, and therefore constitute a na- 
minative in the singular number ; " is" is an intransitive 
verb in the singular number, &c., and agrees with surXy 
cadre J miA fountain, 

A green coarse India silk umbrella, four feet in 
diameter. 

" A" is a defining adjective and belongs to umbrella; 
"green'' and ''coarse'' are quahfying adjectives and be- 
long to silk ; " India" is a defining adjective, and belongs 
to silk ; " silk" is a defining adjective and belongs to 
umbrella; "umbrella" is a common noun, &c. ; "four" 
is a defining adjective, and belongs to feet ; " feet" is ,a 
common noun in the third person, neuter gender, plural 
number, and nominative case.; "in" is a preposition; 
" diameter" is a common noun in the objective case, &c., 
and governed by in. 

If he ask bread, will ye give him a stone } 

" Ask" is a transitive verb in the conditional mode, in- 
definite tense, third person, singular number — should be^ 
ing understood. 



[67] 

NOTE A. 
COULD, MIGHT, SHOULD, and WOULD. 

These auxiliaries have been considered the past of can^ may^ 
shall^ and will ; the following reasons tend to render it doubtful. 

Dr. Webster asserts, in his Dictionary, that could is not the 
same verb as can^ and does not come to us from the same lan- 
guage. 

Home Tooke, in his Diversions of Purlej, says that mighty 
(he is speaking of the noun) is derived from the third person 
singular of the Anglo-Saxon verb, magan^ which, in that per- 
son, is spelled maegeth^ or maegthe^ and that it imports '' what 
one mayeth." It is exceedingly probable that the auxiliary, 
yiiighi^ has the same derivation. 

The regular past of ?^?27/ is i^zV/gfi? ; and no other instance is 
recollected of the same verb having two forms of the past tense 
80 different from each other. 

A learned etymologist, (Skinner or Junius,) represents would 
as synonymous with vellem^ which is the present tense, subjunc- 
tive mode, of the Latin verb volo^ to will. 

The old word, looulding^ is formed from would ; it is a parti- 
cipial noun, and such nouns are never formed from the past 
tense of verbs. 

No other verbs form their past tense like could^ mighty should^ 
and would. 

They are used, it is true, to convey the same meanings as 
can^ may^ shall, and will; but they are used also, even when all 
consideration of time is excluded, to convey other meanings, or 
different shades of meaning. They may also be used in the 
same tense, and with reference to the same period of time : 

He can — may could — might, go to-day. 

He shall — unll should — loould, go to-morrow. 

He can not could not, have reached Boston by this time. 

He may have might have, gone yesterday. 

These auxiliaries seem to possess peculiar characteristics, 
inherited or acquired, and to form a class of words by them- 
selves. Ought, however, may be classed with them, differing 
only in this, that it requires to^ the sign of the infinitive, after it. 



68 NOTE A. 

Like them, it requires the past tense of the injfinitive to express 
past time :-— The packet could — might — should — -would — ought 
to — have sailed yesterday. Like them, when used with the 
indefinite of the infinitive, it refers to time present, or to time re- 
latively future: — ^The packet could — might — should — ivould — 
ought to — sail to-day :-~The instructor said, last week, that 
George could — might — should — would — ^ought to — -begin to stu- 
dy grammar yesterday. 

It is true that these auxiliaries, whatever may be their deri- 
"iration, are often used to signify past time ; it is true, also, that 
they are often used indefinitely, and sometimes to signify pre- 
sent, and sometimes future time. That they are used with the 
indefinite of the infinitive, which, in such connection, points^ to 
the Future, and thus, if they are actually in the past tense, 
forming a compound of past and future tenses, may account for 
their being sometimes used to signify present and future time. 

The following extracts, in which these auxiliaries occur, are 
presented to the reader that he may determine for himself to 
what tense they belong, and whether they belong exclusively 
to a past, present, or future tense :^- 

I am come that they might have life, and that they migM 
have it more abundantly. Bible. 

And Jesus said, For judgment I am come into this world ; 
that they, which see not, might see, and that they, which see, 
7night be made blind. Ibid, 

Whatsoever ye loould that others should do unto you, do ye 
even so unto them. Ibid. 

For this cause, we also do not cease to pray for you, and to 
desire that ye might be filled with the knowledge of his will ; 
that ye 7night walk worthy of the Lord. Ibid. 

Neither prosperity nor adversity could be borne entire and 
unmixed. Man, always prosperous, loould be giddy and inso- 
lent ; always affiicted, would be sullen and despondent. Blair. 

Would you be willing that all your actions should be publicly 
canvassed ? Could you bear to have your thoughts laid open 1 
Such investigation as this, sincerely pursued, might produce, to 
every man, many discoveries of himself Ibid. 

If to suffer were, indeed, all, and no advantage flowed from 
it, then 7night the existence of suffering be a proof, that he who 
ivilled it was defective in benevolence. It is a conclusion which 
we might indeed, be unwilling to admit, because, &c, Broivn. 



NOTE A. 



Somerset. Ah, couldst thou fly ! 

Wanuick. Why, then I would not fly. Shakspeare, 

Macbeth. Wake Duncan with thy knocking I Ay, loould 
thou couldst ! Ibid, 

Seyton. The queen, my lord, is dead. 
JSlacbeth. She should have died hereafter ; 

There would have been a time for such a word. 

Ibid. 

Cassius. O, I could weep the spirit from mine eyes. Ibid. 

Perdita. Even now I tremble 

To think your father, by some accident, 
Should pass this way, as you did. O, the fates ! 
How would he look to see his work so noble, 
Vilely bound up ? What would he say ? Or how 
Should I, in these my borrowed flaunts, behold 
The sternness of his presence % Ibid. 

Wolsey. I loould your grace ivould give us but an hour 
Of private conference. Ibid. 

Think not so much where shining thoughts to place, 
As what a man would say in such a case. Buckingham. 

These islands might be wasted with fire and sword before 
their sovereign would know their distress. A gang of robbers 
might Isiy a wide region under contribution. The crew of a 
petty privateer mig^t land on the largest and most wealthy, 
and riot without control in cruelty and waste. Johnson. 

To abstract the mind from all local emotion would be impos- 
sible, if it were endeavored, and ^oould be foolish if it were pos- 
sible. That man is little to be envied whose patriotism would 
not gain force upon the plain of Marathon, or whose piety would 
not grow v/armer among the ruins of lona. Ibid. 

The established practice of grammarians requires that I 
should here treat of the Syntax ; but our language has so little 
inflection, or variety of terminations, that its construction 
neither requires nor admits many rules. Wallis, therefore, has 
totally neglected it ; and Jonson, whose desire of following the 
writers upon the learned languages, made him think a syntax 
indispensably necessary, has published such petty observations 
as vjere better omitted. Ibid, 



70 NOTE A. 

He must create a solitude around his estate, if he would avoid 
the face of reproach and derision. At Plymouth, his destruc- 
tion would be more than probable ; at Exeter, inevitable. 

Junius. 

I reserve something to awe him in case he should think of 
bringing you before the house of Lords. I am sure I can 
threaten him privately with such a storm as would make him 
tremble even in his grave. Ibid* 

I do not mean to perplex you with a tedious argument upon 
a subject already so discussed that inspiration could hardly throw 
a new Hght upon it. Ihid. 

In such a cause, your success would be deplorable, and vic- 
tory hazardous. America, if she fell, would fall like the strong 
man. She would embrace the pillars of the state, and pull 
down the constitution along with her. Chatham. 

Next we shall see tyrants invade every possession that could 
tempt their cupidity, and violate every right that could obstruct 
their rage. Ames. 

The advocate of a policy thus reprobated must feel himself 
summoned, by every motive of self-defence, to vindicate his 
conduct : and if his general sense of his official duties would 
bind him to the industrious devotion of his whole time to the 
public business, the hours which he anight be forced to employ 
for his own justification loould^ of course, be deducted from the 
discharge of his more regular and appropriate functions. 
S/iowM these occurrences frequently recur, they could not fail 
to interfere with the due performance pf the public business. 

J. Q. Adams. 

Were it merely that we might be correctly and speedily in- 
formed of the proceedings of the Congress, I should hold it ad- 
visable that we should have an accredited agency with them, 
placed in such confidential relations with the other members 
as loould ensure the authenticity of its reports. Ihid. 

Was our government to prescribe to us our medicine and 
diet, our bodies loould be in such keeping as our souls are now. 

Jefferson. 

If a sect arises, whose tenets would subvert morals, good 
sense has fair play, and reasons and laughs it out of doors, 
without suffering the state to be troubled with it. I doubt 
whether the people of this country would suffer an execution 
for heresy. Hid, 



NOTE A. 71 

I could refer to the speeches of another gentleman of the same 
general character, but I will not consume the time of the Senate 
by reading them. Webster. 

The duty of the government, at the present moment, would 
seem to be, to preserve, not to destroy. Ihid. 

We know, or we might know, if we turned to the journal, 
who expressed respect, &c. Ibid. 

Would to God, that harmony might again return. Ibid, 

1 have not accustomed myself to hang over the precipice of 
disunion, to see whether, with my short sight, I can fathom the 
depth of the abyss below ; nor could I regard him as a safe 
counsellor, whose thoughts should be mainly bent on consider- 
ing, not how the union should be best preserved, but how tole- 
rable might be the condition of the people, when it shall be bro- 
ken up and destroyed. Ibid. 

I felt it to be a contest for the integrity of the constitution ; 
and I was ready to enter into it, not thinking or caring, person- 
ally, how I might come out. Bid, 

Of all things capable of compelling this city to recede as fast 
as she has advanced, a broken or weakened union of the states 
roould be sovereign. This would be cause sufficient ; it loo-uld 
be fatal as the arrow of death. Ibid. 

It is not only of flippancy and rancor that we coidd convict 
this traveller ; in several instances, he might be shewn to be 
guilty of deliberate falsehood. Walsh, 

Americans make no distinction where respect and confidence 
are abstractly due ; if, blended and com.pounded as we are, the 
case could be otherwise, it would not certainly be so in reference 
to Irishmen. Ibid. 

Philosophers of every age have exhibited a disposition to 
treat the hunter, the fisherman, and the herdsman as true speci- 
mens of the ordinary growth of the human stock. This error 
is like that of a botanist, who should estimate the size of the 
great magnolia tree by the height that it reaches in the lati- 
tude of Boston ; and should consider the colossal stature and 
glorious display of flowers and foliage, with which nature adorns 
this splendid plant in the climate of Florida, as artificial and 
monstrous. Everett. 



72 



KOTE B. 



NOTE B. 

CONDITIONAL MODE. 

The following arguments are adduced to shew that the En- 
glish language has a Conditional mode. 

The auxiliaries could^ might, should^ and would, as they are 
generally used, express or imply a condition. ' The modification 
of the verb, when they help to form it, is precisely such as indi- 
cates a difference of mode. The difference between I may noio 
write and I might now lorite^ is of the same nature as that be- 
tween amo and amem^ in Latin, and f attends and fattende^ in 
French. 

If the English language has no conditional mode, it is diffi- 
cult to make a just arrangement of the tenses. The aaxifiaries, 
may^ can, and must, when used with the indefinite (present) of 
the infinitive, are properly placed in the present tense of the po- 
tential mode. Could, might, should, and looidd, when used with 
the indefinite of the infinitive, belong to the same tense as much 
as to any other. They should not be placed in a past nor a fu- 
ture tense, for they are not used exclusively in either. There 
is the same difficulty in regard to such expressions as may have 
loved, and might have loved. Both refer to past time, and 
may refer to the same portion of past time, and must be placed, 
side by side, in the same tense, or in different modes : — He may 
have written yesterday ; he might have written yesterday. — 
He may have written before I saw him ; he might have written 
before I saw him. — he may have written after I saw him ; he 
might have written after I saw him. 

In most grammars the potential mode is said to have a per- 
fect and a pluperfect tense. Such expressions as, he may have 
ivritten, are placed in the perfect (present past) tense ; and such 
as, he might have toritten, in the pluperfect (prior past) tense. 
The pluperfect is explained, correctly, '' to denote past time, but 
as prior to some other past time specified." — England might 
have conquered America, if she had exerted her whole strength at the 
beginning of the contest. In this sentence, rnight have conquered 
does not refer to a time prior to any other past time specified or 
implied. — On examination, it will be found, that the potential 
mode has neither a perfect, nor a pluperfect, tense, as those 



NOTE B. 



73 



tenses are defined, and correctly defined, in grammars. JVfcy 
have written^ and might have written^ belong, both of them, to a 
tense which may be correctly denominated a past tense, or a 
past tense indefinite ; and as they are different modifications of 
the verb, to write, they belong to different modes. 

The principal modern languages, to which the English has 
a closer affinity than to the ancient, have either a conditional 
mode, with two tenses, or two conditional tenses. In these two 
tenses are placed those forms of the verb which are analogous^ 
to the English forms, loould lorite^ and would have ivriiten. An J^ 
it is worthy of remark, that fecriverais^ (French,) io smverei^ 
(Italian,) yo escrihiera^ (Spanish.) and Ich wuerde schreihen^ 
(German,) each conveying the same meaning as / would lorite^ 
are all placed in one of the conditional tenses, which is not con- 
sidered a past tense. Some grammarians call it the conditional 
present, and some the conditional future. 

The Encyclopedia Americana, in the article on the English 
language, has the following remarks, quoted from La Harpe, 
a French writer of some celebrity : " The English is still more 
overloaded than our own, (the French,) with auxiliaries, parti- 
cles, articles, and pronouns ] it has less conjugating also, and 
its modes are excessively limited. It has no conditional tense ; 
it cannot say, as in French, je ferois^ firoiSj &c. ; but it is ne- 
cessary to prefix to the principal verb one of these, / would, I 
must, 1 could^ I should have to. It cannot be denied that these 
signs, incessantly repeated, and even equivocal in their signifi- 
cation, argue a deplorable poverty, and have a resemblance to 
barbarism." 

It is not denied that the incessant repetition of these signs is 
more unpleasing to the ear than the equally incessant repe- 
tition of the signs of modes and tenses at the end of French 
verbs ; and this may account for the omission of them in ex- 
pressions, which some grammarians, on account of this omis- 
sion, have assigned to a subjunctive mode. But it is denied 
that the English language has no conditional tense. It has 
two, of which could, might, should, and ivould are the signs ; and, 
in this respect, it has a decided advantage over the French. 
By means of these four signs, ideas may be expressed with 
more precision — different shades of meaning may be more dis- 
tinctly denoted — than by the use of one termination only. 



74 NOTE Crf 



NOTE C. 

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

As this mode is omitted in the enumeration, it may be proper 
to assign reasons for the opinion that there is no such mode in 
the language. 

It is a characteristic of the Latin language to exhibit the 
relations of words, and certain modifications of their meaning, 
by inflection ; in other words, by a change in the spelling. In 
the English language, inflection prevails so little that it cannot 
be called one of its characteristics. In the Latin, the spelling 
of nouns is changed to denote number and case ; that of adjec- 
tives, to denote number, case, and gender ; and that of verbs, to 
denote number, person, mode, and tense. In the English, the 
spelling of nouns is changed to denote but one case, and that of 
but few of them to denote gender ; the spelling of adjectives is 
not changed to denote number, case, or gender ; and but few 
changes, and they are slight, take place in the spelling of verbs ; 
only one tense, the past, is so denoted. This defect, if it is one, 
is remedied by the frequent use of prepositions, pronouns, and 
conjunctions, and of a class of verbs called auxiliaries. The 
use of these, in the formation of modes and tenses, is a distin- 
guishing characteristic of the language. 

This comparison, or rather contrast, of the two languages is 
made to shew that the structure of one language furnishes no 
argimient that the structure of another must be similar ; and 
especially to shew that the structure of the Latin furnishes- no 
proof of what ought to be the structure of the English. In de- 
ciding any doubtful question in regard to a language, reference 
should principally be had to its own prominent peculiarities or 
characteristics. 

Should it be said that the Anglo-Saxon, the parent of the 
English, language, had a subjunctive mode, it may be replied, 
that the structure and rules of a language are liable to change 
as well as the words of which it is composed ; that the sub- 
junctive mode of the Anglo-Saxon has little resemblance to the 
subjunctive mode exhibited in most English grammars ; that 
the Anglo-Saxon was itself a compound, uncultivated, unset- 
tled lane:ua":e ; and since the time of its formation many Danifm 



NOTE C. 



75 



and Norman words and idioms have been incorporated with it ; 
that these different elements, each modifying the others, have, 
after a long period, produced a new language different from 
any of its component parts, and having laws and principles, a 
structure and an idiom, peculiar to itself. Anglo-Saxon nouns 
had several cases denoted by inflection. The formation of new 
prepositions, derived by contraction from other parts of speech, 
has rendered inflection less necessary for that purpose, and En- 
glish nouns have but one case so denoted. The formation, in 
the same way, of new conjunctions, and the increased fi'equen- 
cy of the use of auxiliaries, has rendered less necessary what is 
technically called the inflection of verbs. The use of auxili- 
aries is, in fact, equivalent to inflection. 

In order to ascertain w^hether the English language has a 
subjunctive mode, it is sufficient to inquire, whether such a 
mode is necessary ; whether it is in harmony with the promi- 
nent characteristics of the language : and whether it can be 
shewn to belong to it by the actual, prevailing practice of those 
who speak and write it. 

The subjunctive mode, by which is meant a mode of that 
name exhibited in most English grammars, is not necessary ; 
for doubt, contingency, and dependence may always be express- 
ed by the use of auxiliaries, and of words belonging to other 
parts of speech, particularly conjunctions. If God afflict thee^ 
repine not. This expression would, by most grammarians, be 
considered proper, without supposing an ellipsis, and the verb 
would be assigned to the present tense of the subjunctive mode. 
But if the speaker intended to refer to present time, his mean- 
ing would have been as clearly expressed by saying, If God af- 
flicts thee, or, if God does afflict thee, repine not. The con- 
junction if is quite sufficient to mark the distinction between a 
positive and a doubtful assertion. If the speaker intended to re- 
fer to something contingent or future, he might have expressed 
his meaning, with at least equal clearness, by saying. If God 
should afflict thee, repine not. 

Nay, more. The subjunctive mode is not only unnecessary, 
but the supposition that there is such a mode leads to the use 
of obscure and ambiguous expressions. The meaning of the 
sentence, If God aflflict thee, repine not, is uncertain. Stand- 
ing by itself, it may, according to the doctrine of most gram- 
marians, refer to present time, or to a future contingent event. 
By using either the indicative or the conditional mode, accord- 
ing to the meaning intended to be conveyed, all obscurity and 
uncertainty are removed. If God afflicts thee, repine not ; if^ 



76 



NOTE C. 



God should afflict thee, repine not. It is doubted whether a si- 
milar expression can be cited that could not in the same man- 
ner be improved. 

The form of the verb in the subjunctive mode, as exhibited 
m most English grammars, (and it is only diiFerence of form 
that denotes difference of mode,) is not distinguished from the 
form which it has in the indicative, in any tense but the pre- 
sent, nor in any other way than b}'^ the omission of the termi- 
nating letters in the second and third persons singular. This 
manner of distinction is not in accordance with any peculiarity 
or characteristic of the language. The modification of meaning 
is not denoted, as in the infinitive, potential, and conditional 
modes, by a prefix or auxiliaries. The remaining five tenses 
are precisely like those of the indicative. It is certainly sin- 
gular that there should be two modes in a language, each hav- 
ing six tenses, and one mode differing from the other in only 
the second and third persons singular of one tense. 

The form of the verb in the present tense of the supposed 
subjunctive mode is always the same as that of the indefinite 
of the infinitive ; that is to say, it is the same as when an aux- 
iliary is used. Is it not, therefore, in most cases, and in all 
where the expression is proper, merely the case of an ellipsis 
of some one of the auxiliaries ? Though he injure me, yet I 
will not injure him ; — supply the proper auxiliary, and the 
sentence will be grammatical and perspicuous ; — though he 
should injure me, yet I will not injure him. The verb will then 
be in the conditional mode. Where an auxiliary cannot be 
supplied, the verb retains the indicative form : — If thou didst 
love him, or if thou lovedst him, thou wouldst not have deserted 
him ; — and this strongly confirms the opinion that what is sup- 
posed to be a subjunctive mode is but the case of an ellipsis of 
an auxiliary. 

The subjunctive mode cannot be shewn to belong to the laii- 
guage, by referring to the prevailing practice of those who 
speak and write it. The illiterate do not use it. The learned 
do not invariably use it. It is a habit which sits easy on no 
one — a holiday dress worn with constraint, and never worn but 
in compliance with the precepts of a master ; and it is laid 
aside the instant those precepts are forgotten. That good 
w^riters do not use it, even in cases were grammarians declare 
it to be proper, is established by Dr. Webster, who, in the in- 
troduction to his Dictionary, cites a multitude of examples of 
the neglect of it. Indeed, hardly any book can be examined 



NOTE C, 



T7 



that does not present similar examples ; and many books pre- 
sent no example of the use of it. 

And here it may be proper to remark, that many expressions, 
properly assignable to the subjunctive mode, if such a mode 
exists, are not condemned as ungrammatical. It is only the 
doctrine, that the force of a conjunction, or the doubtfulness of 
the idea, has an influence upon the form of the principal verb, 
that is objected to. The idea intended to be conveyed may 
require that a conjunction, or an auxiliar}'', or both, should be 
used or understood ; but it does not require that the terminat- 
ing letters denoting the second and third persons singular should 
be omitted. Those who contend for a subjunctive mode are 
doubtless of opinion that, in the expression, If thou prosper, 
be not elsiied^ prosper is the whole of the verb ; that no auxi- 
Hary is understood, and that the influence of the conjunc- 
tion, or the idea it conveys, impresses upon it that particular 
form : it is the contrary doctrine, that the expression is gram- 
matical, but not so perspicuous as it might be ; that the verb 
belongs to the conditional mode, indefinite tense ; ihdii prosper 
retains the form of the indefinite of the infinitive ; and that the 
auxiliary, should^ is understood and ought to be expressed : — If 
thou shouldst prosper^ be not elated. In some expressions the 
auxiliary, shall^ is understood, and, in such cases, the verb 
must be considered in the indicative mode, future tense. Those 
expressions only are considered un^'ammatical where present 
time is referred to, and where the verb is in the second or third 
person singular, and yet retains the form of the indefinite of the 
infinitive: — If thou love thy neighbor, why dost thou avoid 
him? 

It is in the present and'past tenses of the verb to he that what 
is supposed to be a subjunctive mode appears most firequently 
in the writings of authors who have a high reputation for purity 
and correctness of style. If he be^ if he were, &c. are almost 
invariably used by them instead of if he is^ if he was, &c. 
But these are not, strictly speaking, different forms of the same 
verb ; they are different words conveying the same meaning. 
Be and were were not endued with these forms for the sole pur- 
pose of being used in a subjunctive mode. If thou beest, (where 
be^ though preceded by a conjunction, has the regular indica- 
tive termination) occurs in Milton and Shakespeare, if not in 
later writers. Be is often used, in the Bible, to convey a cer- 
tain, positive meaning. Be and were are yet used to convey 
a certain, positive meaning by the illiterate, that class among 
which peculiar, primitive idioms linger the longest : thou wert 



4(5 NOTE C. 

often occurs, without a conjunction, in the writings of the best 
authors of the present age ; and if that is correct English, / 
tvere and he were^ used without a conjunction, must be correct 
English also. The English using different sets of words, for 
the substantive verb, in the present and past tenses, it is not 
surprising that the custom should have arisen, among scholars 
attached to the Latin, of using one of them in positive, and the 
other in doubtful, expressions. This custom violates no law, 
and no law but that of custom, which is not universal, would 
be violated by using them indiscriminately. Be and am, were 
and was, belonged once to the same mode, the indicative, and 
they belong to the same mode still, unless the precepts of gram- 
marians, and the custom they have introduced, have had the 
force to change an old law of the language, or to introduce a 
new^ one. (See the conjugation of to be in the Grammar.) 

For these reasons, the subjunctive mode, found in other Eng- 
lish grammars, has been omitted in this. It would not have 
been omitted had it been firmly established. Discarding it 35 
but repealing an almost obsolete statute ; it is but iegahsing a 
practice, not malum in se, but, in fact, bonum prohibitum by the 
grammarians. 



THS SrCD. 



K^. ;: 



i 



)m. 



i 



m 

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003 238 358 ^ 



